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OFFICE OF STRATEGIC SERVICES 
Research rnd Analysis Branch 


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declassified 

SEE EXCHANGE & GIFT DIV. 
DECLASSIFICATION FILE NO.-2^*7 




R & A No. 890.2 



JAPANESE ATTEMPTS AT INFILTR. .TION ALONG MUSLIMS IN 
RUSSIA AND HER BORDERLANDS 


Description 


An analysis of Japanese organisation, 
and methods of propaganda, intelligence, 
and subversion as illustrated by operations 
directed to the Muslims of Russia and her 
border areas• 


august 1944 


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This document contains information affect¬ 
ing the national defense of the United States 
within the meaning of the Espionage Act, 50 
U.S.C., 31 and 32 as amended. Its transmis¬ 
sion or the revelation of its contents in any 
manner to an unauthorized person is pro¬ 
hibited by law. 






































CONFIDENTIAL 


Summary 


Japanese organization for infiltration among Muslim 
minorities in Russia has been characterized by* 

1, Patience and persistence over many years 
despite political changes, 

2, Effective use of unofficial patriotic societies. 

3, Coordination of work of those societies with 
that of military intelligence and the Foreign 
Office by means of interlocking personnel in 
Japan, 

4, Reiteration with little change over several 
decades of a few propaganda themes, 

5, Skillful agent penetration and recruitment of 
native personnel, 

6, Merging of intelligence, subversion, and 
propaganda functions. 

The evidence available does not indicate that the results 
of the infiltration are of present military importance. Its 
chief value to the Japanese is in the field of intelligence. 

The material ir of value, however, for the pattern it 
gives of Japanese methods of espionage and subversion—methods 
which are currently being employed among bther groups and in 
other areas about which we know less. 

During the lent two years there has been a shift in overt 
Japanese activities among Muslims from the Anti-Soviet to the 
anti-British front. There is, however, as y^t no evidence that 
any permanent change in Japanese anti-Russian activities has 
taken place, CONFIDENTIAL 
































































































CONFIDENTIAL 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


Summary . 

I. Introduction* . 1 

A* Purpose of the Study.. 1 

B# Relation to Other Reports in the Muslim Series • • • 2 

C# Chronological Framework of Japanese Interest in 

Minorities in Russia #••••#.. . • 3 

D# Note on Names of Persons • • • •.5 


II# Agencies of Infiltrations. •• . 6 

A# The Patriotic Societies •••••••••••••• 6 

1. The Black Ocean Society • ••••#.•••• 5 

2. The East Asia One-Culture Society.. 8 

3. The Black Dragon Society • •••••••••• 9 

4. The Reawakening of Greater Asia Society • • • 10 

5« The White .Volf and Turan Societies •••••• 11 

6# General influence .. 11 

B# The Amy .... 13 

C# The Foreign Office •«•••••«#•• . 18 

III# Patterns of Operation ... 20 

A# Introduction ••# •#•••••••••«•#•• 20 

B# Propaganda #••• • •••••*•#••••••• 20 

1. The Propagandists •••••••••••#•# 20 

a# Japanese* • • •••••«•••#••••• 20 

'.i# The making of a propagandist «»«•«• 20 

ii# Hass an Uurshid Effendi Hatano# • # * • • 22 

iii# Teijiro Sakuma ••••*•••••»•• 22 

iv# Akio Kasama •••••••••••••• 23 

v, Ha.jime Kobayashi •••••••••••• 23 

vi# Koji Okubo ... • • • 24 

vii# Chishu Naito •••••••••.•«•• 24 

b# Non-Japanese #•••••#••••••«•• 25 

i# Recruitment# •#•••«••••••#• 25 

ii# Abdur Rashid Ibrahim ••••••#.•• 25 

iii# Muhammad Abdul Hai Turban Ali# • • • • • 26 

iv* Iyad Ishaqi. ••«•#••••«•••• 27 

v# Yusuf Akchura Bey Oghlu# •••••••• 28 

2# The Media# •«•••••••••• 29 

a# Conferences . ••••••••• 29 

b. The Press.. 30 

i# Japanese Propaganda in the Muslim Press# 30 

ii# Islamic Periodicals in Japan •••••• 31 


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CONFIDENTIAL 


ii 

Page 

c, Muslim Organizations in Japan- and Occupied 

Territory 31 

i. The "Muslim Pact" of 1909# 31 

ii. The Tokyo Islamic U r der* • » 32 

iii. The Japan Residents * Muslim League , . . 53 

iv. The I.U.T.T.C.A. . * 4 34 

v. The Society of Islamic Culture « . . • • 34 

vi. The Institute of Islamic Studies • . • • 35 

vii. The Greater Japan Muslim League. . • • • 36 

viii. The Muslim Student League. ••••••• 37 

3. The Content. 37 

a. The Influence of Islam in Japan, • ••••• 37 

b. The Unity of Muslim and Japanese Interests • 38 

i. Religious Uni- 6 y. • •..•••••••• 39 

ii. Racial Unity • •••••••••••.. 40 

iii. Geographic Unity ..• • • • 41 

iv. Political Unity.. 41 

v. Cultural Unity . . 4444 .. 41 

C. Intelligence!, . 42 

; 4 1* Bases of Operation • ••••••••••••• 42 

a. Turkey •••..•.. 4 .... 4 . 4 . 4 . 42 

b. Iran •••••• 45 

c. Afghanistan. . . .•••••••« 44 

2. Types of Agent •••• «.• 44 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 45 

a. Resident • ••••••••••. . 45 

b. Itinerant. • 4 • # 4 . . ... * 4 • 46 

c. Native •••••.44 . • ••.•• 49 

D. Subversion and Sabo.tag© 51 

Recent Developments. • ••••. • •.,•••••••. 53 

Appendix I, Organizations ••••... •*.. 

Appendix II, V/ho*s who , . . ... (otfo 

Appendix III, Muslims in the USSR 


ColIFI DEWTIAL 






























* 



CONFIDENTIAL 


I* INTRODUCTION 


A* Purpose of the Study 

Japanese methods of infiltration and the organization of Japanese 
espionage and subversion have been little studied and are still less 
known. One phase of Japanese infiltration — that among the Muslim 
minorities of the Soviet Union —is presented here. The study has 
been made possible by Japan*s old but lively concern over the 
Russian borderlands and the self-glorifying publications of the 
Black Dragon Society. For more than forty years the Society, the 
dominating pressure group behind Japan’s Pan-Asiatic program, has 
been aggressive in espionage and subversion. 7»hile it veils with 
secrecy its living members and their activities, it generously 
publicizes and praises the patriotic deeds of expansionist-minded 
Japanese now dead. Since the Society first made a name for itself 
in anti-Russian activities,, they may be more successfully studied 
than those more recently initiated in other areasi Black Dragon 
publications have provided the bulk of the information for this 
paper. 

Though much of the information given here is historical, it 
shows patterns of operation which all available scraps of current 
intelligence indicate are still in use. This report does not, in 


C : FIDENTIAL 





- 2 - 


CONFIDENTIAL 


general, name Japanese agents now active in the Soviet Union, 
but it does point out where, how, and through what channels 
they are probably operating* Moreover, it is certain that 
similar patterns have been and are being followed by Japanese 
agents in other areas and with other groups — e*g•> in India 
or Latin America and vis-a»»vis the Buddhists, the Roman Catholics, 
end even the Eastern Orthodox# Since even the historical aspects 
have not previously been so fully described in any language but 
Japanese, it is believed that this study should be of value to 
those attempting to unrpvel Japanese underground activities* 

Lists of related organizations and personnel—living and 
dead—are provided in Appendices I and II respectively# They 
may help specialists to correlate bits of information otherwise 
meaningless. Appendix III describes' the target - the Muslims of 
the USSR - their number and distribution. 

B, Relation to Other Reports in the Muslim Series 

Three reports on Japanese infiltration among Muslims . 
have already been issued* R & A No. 890, „ "Japanese Infiltration 

among the Muslims throughout the Mo rid,” is an. over-all summary, 

R A A No, 890,1, ”Japanese Infiltration among Muslims in China,” 
contains an extensive description of operations in r • - 
R & A No# 890.3, "Japanese Infiltration among.Muslims, Annex III, 
Near East,” is a’brief summary for the Near East* The present 


CONFIDENTIAL 





CONTI BERT IAL 


- 3 - 

study relates to Russia and the Russian borderlands# It has a 
somewhat fuller account of organizations in Japan than have 
any of the earlier reports in the series* 

Sinkiang as a base for Muslim activities is fully covered 
in R & A Mo. 890*1 and is, therefore, passed over here. 

G. Chronological Framework of Japanese Interest in Minorities in 

Russia, 

Fear of Russia first developed in Japan at the end of the 
eighteenth Century when Russian ships reached Japanese waters 
and Russian pioneers be :an to filter into the.Maritime Province, 
and Sakhalin, The fear increased when Russia acquired the Maritime 
Province from China and established Vladivostok in 1859, It 
was an important factor in the minds of a number of the leaders 
of the Japanese Imperial Restorations of 1867 and motivated 
early post-Restoration Japanese policy in Forea. 

Subsequent events -- the construction of the Trans-S.iberian 
Railway, Russian leadership in the three-power intervention which 
f jrced Japan to relinquish Port .-irthur and th e Liaotung Peninsula 
after the Sino-Jnpanese War of 1894-95, Russia^ lease of the same 
areas three years later. Russian occupation of Manchuria during 
the Boxer Uprising of 1900, and Russo-Japanese competitive 
intriques at the Korean Court-culminated in tho Russo-Japanese 


CONFIDENTIAL 






CGNFIDENTIAL 


- 4 - 

War of 1904-05. In this war Japan won a limited victory, estab¬ 
lished herself in Korea .and Southern Manchuria, gained half of 
Sakhalin, and received a promise of fishing rights of the Pacific 
Coast of Siberia* 

There followed a period of Russo-Japanese Rapprochement 
and division of spheres in Manchuria^ end Mongolia. This lasted 
until the Russian Revolution when Japan joined Britain and the United 
States in the occupation of Siberia and strongly supported the 
anti-Soviet forces. Jo.panese troops withdrew only after the 
Washington Conference. 

Relations with the Soviet Union wore re-established in 1925 
but have remained turbulent ever since, with the annual fisherie 
auctions and mining operations in Northern Sakhalin causing chronic 
disputes. Since Japan’s occupation of Manchuria in 1931 border 
incidents have been frequent. Japan has sought to establish 
bulwarks against communist ideology as well as Red troops and planes. 

Throughout her modem history Japan has made preparations 
for possible hostilities with Russia. Intelligence and a potential 
fifth column in the Russian roar have been important considerations. 
Muslim groups form a solid belt along Russia’s Asiatic borders 
(see. Appendix III) in a rich economic region and along vital linos 

of communication. Their resistance to Russiah nationalism under 

iv 

Tsarisuh and their oppositions to anti-religious measures under 


CONFIDENTIAL 




CONFIDENTIAL 


- 5 - 


Coimnunisin provided openings for penetration* The Japanese 
seized on suoh opportunities to exploit religious discontent 
just as they supported the atheistically inclined Social 
revolutionaries during the Russo-Japanese War# 

D* Note on Names of Persons 


In this report, all but Chinese names are given in the 
Western fashion, that is, with personal names first, followed by 
surnames* The exception in case of Chinese names is made because 
of their own custom of using the Oriental manner of surname first, 
even in translation into foreign tongues* Thus, in the Chinese 
name, Ma Chteng-lung, Ma is the surname and Ch* eng -lung the 
personal name. On the other hand, in Japanese and. other names, 
the last word of the whole name is the surname* Thus in the 
Japanese name. Sen jure 1 Hay as hi, the surname is Hay as hi and the 
personal name Senjuro* The same practice, is followed with regard 
tc Muslim nationals of Soviet Russia who, contrary to the orthodox 
Muslim usage, have assumed surnames in the Russian manner* To 
avoid possible confusion it should be explained that R & A No* 890, 
^Japanese Infiltration among Muslims in China,” follows the Chinese 
system in Japanese as well as in Chinese names — surname followed 
by personal name# 


CONFIDENTIAL 





CONFIDENTIAL 


- G - 

II, Agencies of Infiltration 

Almost all Japanese propaganda among Mug 1ims has been 
activated by three principal agencies; Ijhe patriotic societies, 
which have provided initiative, fervor, and continuity, and Army 
intelligence and the Foreign Office, which have increasingly given 
financial support and official sponsorship# 

A# The Patriotic Societies 

Japan*s growing consciousness of her role -as a rising 
power led, after the Restoration, to the appearance there of an 
increasing number of patriotic groups which were bent on preventing 
the encr oachment of Western powers into Asia on the one hand and on 
furthering Japanese Asiatic expansion on the other# These societies 
played a major part in the development of the Japanese infiltration 
pattern among the Muslims of the Soviet Union. Only a few which 
are important Qr typical are described here, 

1# The Black Ocean Society (Gonyosha)# The expansionist 
purpose of the earliest important p>atriotic- society was symbolized 
in its name, the Black Ocean Socity# (The stretch of water between 
Kyushu and the mainland is known to the Japanese as the Genkainada, 
or Black Sea), It sponsored a number of enterprises directed against 
Russia and Russian territorial claims on the continent of Asia# For 


CONFIDENTIAL 







CONFIDENTIAL 


- 7 - 

example, the Hall of Pleasurable Delights (p.okuzendo) was set 
up in Hankow as early as 1887, ns a cover for agents of infil¬ 
tration into Sinkiang and Russian Central Asia, Its eight-point 
program included investigation of financial conditions and tax 
grievances ; of economic and agricultural improvement; of the 
capital required to develop thv3 region; of Russian, Tibetan, 

Burmese, and Indian defenses in. Central Agia; of the condition of 
the roads; end exploration among such groups as the Muslim and 
Buddhist clergy, the local nomads and Chinese, and important persons 
to be identified, which might be exploited for "our purpose,” The 
agents, nine of them are known by name, traveled as Chinese itinerant 
peddlers of "literature and medicines•" It is not known whether 
they peddled political propaganda or whether, as is more likely 
judging from the name of the headquarters in Hankow, their stock in 
trade was no more than obscene photographs and dope. Not all spoke 
Chinese well enough to accomplish the Black Ocean aims and some ran 
into trouble with the Russian police in Kashgar, Those who were 
arrested by the Russians have not been heard of since, except for one 
whose loss of face prevented his return to' Japan and who is reputed to 
have escaped and settled in Burma, 

A more successful enterprise organized by the Black Ocean 
Society was a jujitsu school in Vladivostok, with a program similar 
to that of the hall of Pleasurable Delights but mor-- limited in its 


CONFIDENTIAL • 





CONFIDENTIAL 


- 8 - 

scope* Its work extended to Eastern and Central Siberia, especially 
along the route of the Trans-Siberian Railway then under construction* 
A member of the Black Ocean group left Hankow for Sapporo 
in 1893 to run a school training spies for Russian territory* He 
later contributed personnel to the jujitsu school and in 1897 and 
1898 set out on photographing expeditions around Khabarovsk* His 
earlier experience in Central Asia must have stood him in good stead, 
for none of his group was arrested* 

2. The East Asia One-Culture Society (Tea Dobunkai)* The 
name describes the Society's aims, even though it was the result 
of o. merger of the East Asia Society and the One-Culture Society 
in 1898. Originally intended to emphasize their common system of 
writing as a basis for Sinor*Japanese rapprochement its activities 
have not been confined to China, and its language and regional 
training program has aided in work among Muslims* In 1939 the 
Society had 4,000 members. 

The East A s ia One-Culture School, known to English-speaking 
persons as the Tung Wen College and to the Japanese as the Toa Dobun 
Shoin, was organized in Shanghai for the training of members. By 
1908 its 272 graduates were scattered throughout China, India, Annum, 
Burma, the Philippines, Mongolia, "but primarily among Russian-hoId 
Muslims." The school now occupies the buildings of the Chiaotung 
University, seized by the Japanese in 1937. At present it is 


CONFIDENTIAL 





CONFIDENTIAL 


- 9- 

supported by army funds and in Chinese circles is frankly 
known as the '*Japanese Spy College*” One of its instructors of 
Turki and subversive tactics is reputed to be Qurban Ali, who 
came to Japan from Shanghai end Manchuria in 1924 on the invitation 
of Ki Inukai, the founder of the Society* Qurban Ali h?is a record 
of subversive activity against the Soviet Union* He also became 
the president of the Tokyo Islamic Order and an instructor of Turki 
languages at the Tokyo Military College# 

3* The- Black Dragon rocie ty(Kokuryukai) was founded in 1901 
hy Ryohei Uchida and was nomed after the Amur or Black Dragon River ^ •''X 

in Manchuria. Its immediate purpose was preparation for a war with 
Russia, whose territory lay across the Amur. All the charter members 
had at one time done intelligence work on the continent, and believed 

V 

that Japan must challenge, fight and defeat Russia# 

The Black Dragon Society is trio most important of the con¬ 
temporary patriotic societies# It has a membership of perhaps 
10,000 and has been active all the way from the dnited states 
and Latin America to Ethiopia and North Africa. Former Premier 
Koki Ilirota and an unknown number of other high officials are 
members* The arch-patriot Mitsuru Toyama, who didd in October 1944, 
was an adviser of the Black Dragon. Toyama was a director of the 
Imperial Rule Assistance Association, Japan r s official unified 


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political organization, as is Yoshihisa Kuzuu, the Society^ present 
president. On 3 June 1943, Kuzuu in a radio broadcast on behalf 
of the Society threatened Roosevelt and Churchill with dire conse¬ 
quences unless the United Nations armies and navies surrendered 
unconditionally to Japan; 

The Black Dragon Society maintains it'Tokyo.its .own school, 
the Nationalists 1 Training Academy, now run by Giichi Fukushima, 

In addition it aided in promoting the Tokyo and Osaka Foreign 
Language Schools, 

4, The Reawakening of Greater Asia Society (Dai - A - Gl Kai) 
had its headquarters in Mukden, It was organized in 1909 under the 
name Reawakening of asia Society, Following the Chinese Revolution 
in 1911, the headquarters were moved to Manchuria and the name of 
the society and its ambitions enlarged to encompass a "Greater Asia," 
The society formed branches in China, Siam, Afghanistan, Turkey, 
Persia, and India, Its fourfold program included the study of 
economic, geographic, 'educational, colonial* and religious condi¬ 
tions and organizations; the sending out of agents; the founding of 
branch societies; and the dissemination.: of published and oral 
propaganda. It claimed the more .specific purpose of establishing 
"cooperation between the Muslim peoples of Central Asia and Japan 
to free them from Russian chains," 


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5* The White Wolf and Turan Societies . From the same 
leadership have emanated other lesser societies and organizations 
oriented specifically toward Muslims. The White Wolf Society was 
organized in 1924, following the arrival in Japan of a representative 
of the Pan-Turan Society’of Budapest in 1921. The Turan Society of 
Japan was set up in 1933 with the aid of the founders of the Black 
Ocean and the Black Dragon Societies. Both organizations are probably 
affiliated with the Bozkurt or Grey Wolf Society in Turkey and the 
Pan-Turan Society of Budapest, which are made up predominantly of 
Muslim refugees from Russia and especially from Russian Turkestan,. 

They and their Japanese counterparts stress racial rather than 
religious unity, on the basis of an ancient belief that the white 
or gray she-wolf was the common ancestor of both the Turkic and the 
Mongol peoples. It is probable that they have b'een carrying on 
subversive activities against the Soviet Union with the establishment 
of an independent -^an-Turkic and Pan-Isiamic state in Central Asia 
as an ultimate goal. * 

6. General Influence. The patriotic societies are private 
and independent, yet related to each other and to the government 
by innumerable personal ties. Toyama, godfather of them all and 
founder of the Black Ocean Society was an adviser of the Black Dragon 
and the hero of every expansionist in and outside the government. 


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Chikashi Hirayama and Choichi Kaji, charter members of the 
Black Dragon, were among those who' organized the East Asia 
One-Culture Society* The two great political party leaders 
Shigenobu Okuma and Ki Inukai collaborated in many Black Ocean 
and Black Dragon undertakings though they are were not actually members 

The societies differ in emphasis but share a common patriotic 
(and predatory) purpose* They are powerful, ever-present pressure 
groups behind Japanese aggression, permeating the political life of 
the nation* Their leaders have helped to gain important government 
and army positions for those wham they consider to be ’’sincere** 
persons, while not infrequently eliminating those who do not serve 
their purposes* Almost every modern assassination in Japan can 
be linked with Toyama although never by ties that will stand up 
in a court of law. 0 

Abroad these societies are important and dangerous because 
of the zealous membership drawn from every walk of life* Some 
members are educated in languages and trained in subversive tactics* 
Others merely collect information as shopkeepers, tourists, students 
of Islam, salesmen of literature, fisherman, wrestling teachers, 
businessmen, professors, priests, and archaeologists. A middle-class 
shopkeeper in Fukuoka will transfer his drygoods to Chita, Khabarovsk, 
or Kashmir, living there for years as an honest, industrious, patient. 


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end peaceful citizen, quietly gathering local facts. This 
service gives him in his own eyes and in the eyes of his countrymen 
nobility and spiritual worth* Black Dragon, publications arc full 
of biographies of little men who earned a place of honor by their 
devotion to the patriotic cause* The fruits of their labor are 
channeled to the government and military forces through the society 
leaders* This interlocking directorate has taken the initiative 
in inviting to Japan and sponsoring such Russian Muslim leaders as 
Ibrahim and Iyad Ishaqi. 

B# The Army 

It is not always possible to separate the functions of the 
patriotic societies from those of army intelligence. In a country 
with a warrior tradition and peacetime conscription there is no 
sharp line separating civilians from military personnel. Everyone 
servos* Cooperation has been close end activities mutually com¬ 
plementary* This has been due to identity of purpose, overlapping 
membership, and frequently interlocking leadership* The patriotic* 
societies draw e large number of members from the aimed forces 
and supply recruits to military intelligence* As a result tfie 
biographies in society publications give occasional clues to the 
undercover activities of the Japanese Army. They make it clear 
that the strategic possibiltios of espionage and fifth-column work 


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among Russia’s twenty million alien Muslims were obvious 
to the Japanese General Staff. "The army has been a strong 
supporter of the ’’Japanese Mulim Policy” ever since the last 
quarter of the nineteenth century* 

For example, a Colonel Yasumasa Fukushima, who had been a 
military attache in Peking, Berlin, and the Balkans, traveled on 
horseback through the Caucasus, the Volga region, the lower Urals, 
Siberia, and Central Asia between 1833 and 1897* He established 
contacts in Manchuria, Mongolia, Persia, Turkey, and Afghanistan* 

A Black Dragon publication states, "His trips were spy efforts to 
learn what the Russians were doing and to make friends with the 
Muslim peoples*” That Russia was aware of his travels, if not of 
their full purpose, is shown by the fact that the Tsar and Tsarina • 
gave him an audience before he set out on a trip into Russian 
Central Asia in 1892* A Brief entry in a Samarkand .almanac for 
1896 reads, "August 9* Colonel of the Japanese Armed Forces, Fukushima, 
arrives*” The hidden fruits of his efforts may be measured by his 
rewards of a generalship, a peerage, and idle governorship of the 
Kwantung Peninsula* Others did not travel as openly nor were they 
a-'successful in concealing their motives, for we find occounts of 
their summary arrest by the Russian police* Two who escaped 
detention were Uehara (see Appendix II), arrested in 1912 at Tashkent, 


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find Sadao Araki (now General), arrested in 1916 at Irkutsk. 

Another early array exponent of the Muslin policy was 
also a military attache, Colonel Motojiro Akashi, detailed to 
France, Sweden, Switzerland, and Russia. On the eve of his departure 
for Europe in 1901, he discusses possibilities of infiltration into 
Russia with two leaders of the Black Ocean Society* Uchida, the 
organizer of the jujitsu school in Vladivostok, and of the Black 
Dragon Society, and Sugiyama, the backer of the Hall of Pleasurable 
Delights in Hankow, Akashi 1 s extra-official assignment was to establish 
contact with Russian revolutionaries. In this he amply succeeded, 
for the notorious Father Gapon who led the march to the «palace on 
1lr Blood^ Sunday" of 9 January 1905, and the agent-provocateur Azof 
of the Socialist Revolutionary Party were among his friends, When 
Japan attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur two days before the 
formal declaration of tho Russo-Japanese War, Akashi had already left 
for Stockholm to attend the Russian Socialist Congress, There he 
arranged to supply arms for the revolutionary uprisings in Kiev, 

Odessa, and St, Petersburg. 

M 0 re significant than Akashi f s dabblings with the revolutionists, 
however, was his friendship with the noted Tatar Muslim, Abdur Rashid, 
Ibrahim (see Appendix II), whom he met in the Russian capital, 

Ibrahim was then adviser on Muslim affairs to the Russian Government 
and publisher of the Tatar language newspaper Ulfet in St. Petersburg, 


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The effects of this rapprochement have been numerous an:! far-reaching* 
Akashi worked with Ibrahim in the organization-of Muslim resistance 
in the Russian rear. Ore .his return to Japan he arranged for 
Ibrahim’s son to be educated in Japan at the expense of the Black 
Dragon Society, In 1906 and 1909 Ibrahim himself visited Japan 
and entered into closer collaboration with tho Japanese, 

During World War I Akashi was Assistant Chief of °taff and * 
collaborated with General Sadao Araki (see Appendix II) in promoting 
Baron Ungern von Sternberg’s Autonomous Mongol Empire, Together 
they also directed the Japanese occupation of Siberia, 

Following General Akashi*s death in 1919, General Rensuke 
Isogai, director of a my Intelligence and lat r of tho Military Affairs 
Bureau, took up the Muslim banner. He and General Araki upheld the 
M imperative necessity of a strong Japanese policy toward the Muslims 
vis-a-vis Russia if Japan wants to carry out her plan for hegemony 
in East Asia,** 

General Araki, member of the Supreme Ymr Council, War Minister 
from 1931 to 1933, Minister of Education from 1937 to 1930, and an 
important influence behind Premier Tojo, was, however, ostensibly 
an active advocate of the Russian Orthodox policy, H e therefore only 
covertly endorsed the Muslim policy. 

In 1932 the patriotic societies believed that the Japanese 
Muslim policy needed more vigorous implementation as well as a wider 
field in the Hear and Middle East, 

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Lakabayashi and Tanaka, both Muslim converts and proteges of Toyama 
and Uchida, approached Generals Isogai and Areki to enlist their 
official support* As a result, groups of officers, including those 
recruited by V/akabayashi and Tanaka, were trained in Muslim languages 
and religion* Many ostensible converts to Islam subsequently made 
annual pilgrimages to Mecca where they made contacts, spread 
propaganda, a nd obtained intelligence. 

Araki’s successor as Aar Minister in 1934 was General Conjure 
Hayashi, who actively championed the Muslim policy. Hay as hi was one 
of the founders of both the Good Neighbour Association and the 
Greater Japan Muslim League* After Hayashi became Prime Minister 
in 1937 he founded with Ibrahim the Greater Japan Muslim League for 
the dissemination of propaganda throughout the Muslim world* 

Others in high army circles have sponsored various Muslim 
organizations* In 1938 the army set up in Peking the Muslim Youth 
Corps under Shinzo Takagaki to train Muslim youths for special service 
in the army. Muslim youths of Russian birth or parentage were invited 
in 1942 to train as Japanese aides in the promotion of. Greater East 
Asia, rather than to serve as army privates# Lieutenant General 

9 

Nobutaka Shioten, president of the Japan Residents 1 Muslim League, 
has recently (February 1944) been the most active exponent in the 
Japanese Diet of greater funds and personnel for work among the Muslims 
of Asia. 


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C# The Foreign Office 

The Foreign Office (Gaimusho), whose work is closely- 
interrelated with that of the patriotic societies# since 1905 
has been increasingly active in supporting propaganda and cultural 
penetration* 

The foreign service in Muslim countries has been both a 
training school for Muslim "Exports" and an attractive career for 
those already adept#- Akio Kasama, for instance, one of Japan’s 
leading writers oh Muslim’s subjects, was formerly in the diplomatic 
service in Turkey and in Persia, Students sponsored by tho patriotic 
societies are now among the Embassy secretaries at Ankara and Kabul# 

The Foreign Office, either directly or through such affiliates 
as the society for International Cultural Relations, has channeled 
government funds to a great variety of activities# It has supported 
the East Asia One-Culture School (Toa Dobun Shoin) and the Tokyo 
and Osaki Foreign Language Schools, which teach Russian,end other 
languages of Muslim usage. 

Missions both to and from Muslim areas have been encouraged, 
and the Foreign Office has probably been instrumental in bringing 
to Japan such prominent Soviet Muslim refugees as Abdur-Rashid 
Ibrahim find Iyad Ishaqi, 

Conferences are a favorite infiltration device, and have been 


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backed by the Foreign Office (see pp. 2 r -30 )• Directly or 
indirectly the Foreign Office has subsidized Muslim organizations 
in Japan (see pp. 31-37 for list). 

Finally, the Foreign Office directly supports Espionage 
by contributing funds to agents, both from Tokyo and from E$fthassies 
and consulates in or near Muslim areas. 



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111 . PATTERNS OF 0?EJL\TI0N 

A# Introduction 

The division of the pattern of Japanese operations into 
propaganda, intelligence, and subversion and sabotage is here 
artificially adopted for purposes of analysis* livhile some Japanese 
act only as propagandists, others as intelligence agents, and still 
others as saboteurs, the large majority combines the three occupa¬ 
tions simultaneously 'r alternately as need be# joi agent passes 
from propaganda to intelligence work and on to sabotage and sub¬ 
version almost imperceptibly* 

B* Propaganda 

1# The Propagandists 
a# Japanese 

i# The making o f a propagandist * Three stages can 
frequently be distinguished in the careers of Japanese propagandist 
to the Muslims* First, interest in Is lean as Japan* s potential 
military or political ally is acquired either through membership 
in a patriotic society, residence in a Muslim territory or in 
Russia, or merely by association with persons already similarly 
interested# Second comes official conversion to Is lorn and the 
assumption of an Islamic name# This is really the public debut 


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of the new-born Muslin and officially launches him on his 
propaganda career* Thirl is activity to promote a Muslim 
alliance with Japan* This may take any or all of the following 
forms: a trip to Mecca to make contacts, make himself known, 

and advertise Japan as a potentially Muslin nation willing to 
learn from--^slam; organization of a society, a periodical, or a 
newspaper at home or abroad on funds which are either given by the 
Foreign Office or collected privately in army and patriotic 
society circles; extensive writing on Muslim quSstions. If the 
article is for the Muslim periodicals outside Japan, most frequently 
the signature is merely "A Japanese Muslim*” If it is for the 
Muslim press at home, subsequently circulated abroad, either the 
agent’s Japanese or Muslim name, or both, may be used* Lastly come 
•a great number of other cultural activities, such as going abroad 
to study in a Muslim school end to make friends there; welcoming 
Muslim celebrities to Japan; corresponding with them on political 
and religious subjects; and arranging lectures and tours for Muslims 
in Japan* 

Six men stand out among Japanese propaganda writers on Muslim 
questions* They are authorities on Islam and hove dealt extensively 
in verbal and printed propaganda umong Muslims* Others, especially 
those who were simultaneously engaged in subversion and intelligence, 
are listed in Appendix II, w Y;ho T s Lho*” The outstanding intelligence 


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and subversion agents will be noted in the next two sections of this 
chapter# 

ii# Hassan Furshid Effendi Hatano. Hassan Murshid Effendi 
Hatano, the earliest agent and contributor to the Black Dragon otgan, 
Greater Asia, was converted to Islam with much publicity in 1911 and 
has subsequently been publisher of Islam and Islamic Unity in Tokyo. 

He also sent articles in English to the Muslim press throughout the 
world, which we find reviewed in the Russian Mir Islama , the Italian 
Oriente Lloderno, and the Indian Review of Religions, during the first 
twenty years of this century# Hatano T s articles, even when signed 
"A Japanese Muslim," are written in a style distinctly his own and 
easily recognizable. They consist of pleadings for more Muslim 
missionaries and literature in Japan, funds for the building of a 
mosque, descriptions of Japan which read like a tourist booklet, 
and professions of great humility with regard to "what Islam can 
teach Japan," In the twenties, Hatano’s articles disappeared from 
the press. Since his name is not in Toa Senkaku it is possible that 
he is still alive but engaged in work other than propaganda# His 
Black Dragon membership and Muslim connections are a good background 
for subversive work in some Muslim territory# 

iii• Teijiro Sakuma # Teijiro Sakunia, the founder of the 
Society of Light in Shanghai and the Society of Islamic Culture in 
Tokyo, is a prolific writer on Muslim questions, always emphasizing 


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Japanese interest and support of both the Pan-Islam and the Pan-Turan 
movements, A convert to Islam, he was known in Shanghai as 
Tso Tung-shan, ^hen he was in Central Asia as Black Dragon investi¬ 
gator of the Tatars, Kazaks, and Tungans, Hadjet-Lache, the Tsarist 
investigator there, reported finding leaflets in native tongues 
urging the Muslim natives to work for an autonomous Muslim state 
with Japan’s help, Sakuma has '’traveled” in Indie, j.sia Minor, 
Turkey, Mongolia, Manchuria, and Sinkiang, He wtis closely associated 
with Qurban Ali in the latter’s ,>ropagandistic ventures supported 
by the Foreign. Office and he edited the Light of Islam in Shanghai 
in the early twenties. An extensive list of his publications on 
Muslim questions appears in the Harvard-Yenching Index to Japanese 
Periodicals for 1940, 

iv, Akio Kas am a, Akio Kasama, fifty-nine years old, 
has been a prolific writer on Muslim questions. Long associated 
with the Foreign Office, he has held diplomatic posts in Iran, 
where he was credited with the organization of Soviet Mu&lim 
espionage, France, Portugal, and South .'morica. In 1939 he was 
one of the directors of the Institute for Islamic Studies* At 
present he is army administrator of an unspecified area in the 
South Seas• 

v. , Hajime Kobayashi, Hajime K oh eyas hi, one of the 
directors of the Institute of Islamic Studies and head of its 


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research department, is else publisher- of the Kaikyo-ken (Islamic ac rid 
He is a student of Muslim culture and Turki languages raid is also 
said to know Russian# Early in 1941 he was reported to be in Mexico, 
where together with several other Japanese' (Puminaga Fukii and Masao 
Fukamachi) he was connected with a mysterious transaction involving 
ten million dollars, purported to be for subversive and propagandists 
activity in Sodth /anerica* Perhaps this should bo understood in 
connection with the development of a Japanese "Roman Catholic Policy" 
in Latin America# Kobayashi f s present whereabouts is unknown• 

vi# Koji Okubo# Koji Okubo, the official head of- the 
Institute of Islamic Studies, is a student of Russian and Turki 
peoples and languages and is known for his writings on Pan-Islam 
and its relation to the Central Asiatic peoples• He is also an active 
proponent of the Japanese Pan-Turanian policy# A close associate 
of Toyama and Uchida, he has twice been exchange professor in the. Near 
East. 


vii#- Chishu Naito# Chishu Naito, doctor of literature, 
professor in the Tokyo E omen’s Higher Normal -School, Meiji 
University, and Kokugalcu University, is fifty-seven years old# He 
has written, numerous books on the Muslim and the Turki questions 
and toured the Near East and the Balkans for the Foreign Office 
between 1923 and 1929# Ho was sent to Turkey on several other 


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cultural and diplomatic missions# He is considered an p~utbority 
on Russia, Turkey, Iron, and the Balkans# Both his Turkish and 
his Russian are excellent# Compared with the other Japanese 
propagandists, his writings show great subtlety and scholarship, 
b• Non-Jagone se 

i# Recruitment# Japan has been assiduous in cultivating., 
flattering, supporting, and utilizing leading Muslims* They are 
located and contacted by diplomatic officials or military attaches 
abroad, softened up by subsidized visits to Japan and suave enter¬ 
tainment, end all too frequently used successfully in Japanese 
propaganda# The flight of some of the more fervent and literary of 
the Muslims of Soviet Russia gave Japan opportunities which she 
has exploited skillfully# 

ii# Abdur Rashid Ibrahim# In spite of Abdur Rashid 
Ibrahim's espionage activities on behalf of Japan during the Russo- 
Japanese bar, so far as the Muslim world is concerned he is famous 
rather as an authority on pan-Islam and as a leader of the Pan-Islomic 
movement than as an agent of Japanese imperialism# A, Siberian of the 
Volga Tatar race, his whole life seems to have been ruled by fin all- 
consuming passion for Pan-Islan* A fiery preacher, an eloquent ' > 
writer, Ibrahim r s devotion to the cause of Pan-Islam and Muslim 
independence from Christian domination played into the hands of 


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s £6 rs 

J^pan from the turn of the century until his dealjh In September 
1044. lifter one secret trip to Japan in 1906, another with a great 
deal of fanfare in 1909, and a spectacular escape from Russia to 
Turkey following arrest by the pnilitary police, he was noted as 
preacher, ; traveler, and editor of several Pan-Is Iconic and anti- 
Russian Muslim periodicals in Turkey, all laden with Japanese 
propaganda. His return to Japan in 1933 led to a flare-up of 
propaganda activity publicizing Japan as the world*s now Muslim 
center, ^ill unknown are the activity and whereabouts of Ibrahim*s 
son, brought to Japan for education at the expense of the Black 
Dragon Society in the early part of the.century, but referred to 
by all Japanese sou-roes as "Mr. X, .the son.of Ibrahim," 

iii. Muhammad Abdul Hai Qurban Ali. Another celebrity 
omong the Russian Muslims , has been Muhammad Abdul Hai Qurban Ali, 
mullah and son of a mullah, mathematician and strategist, and leader 
of the "independent Bashkiria" and the "independent Kirghizia" 
movements during the Russian Civil bar of 1918-2?,# Following two 
trims' to Japan, with groups -of young Bashkir officers who were left 
there for training,, Qurban Ali come to -Tokyo at Inukai 1 s invitation 
for pepaanent residence in 1924. Known in Russian as Eurbangali, 
Kurbanga^ev, and Kurban Aliev^ he soon united about him most of 
th° dissicfopt Muslim elements in the Fa? East and, while teaching 


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» 27 *• 

Turki tongues find subversive tactics in the Tokyo Military Academy 
and several patriotic schools, began the publication of the Turlcish- 
lnnguage propaganda journal Yapon Mukhbiri on the funds of the Foreign 
Office* Until the arrival in Japan of Abdur Rashid Ibrahim and Iyad 
Ishaqi in 1933, he was the undisputed leader of anti-Russian, 
activities among the Muslim refugees in Japan and Manchuria* Qurban 
Ali’s latest residence is reported to be Shanghai, where he came after 
an ostentatious public quarrel with Iyad Ishaqi at the Tokyo Mosque 
opening in 1938* whether this is really so, or whether his removal 
to Shanghai, was merely a maneuver to bring him into closer touch with 
Japanese anti-Russian activities based in Manchuria end North China 
and directed at Sinkian.g and .Soviet Central Asia, or whether, , as 
reported, he went there primarily to train spies in the Toa Dobun 
Shoin (Tung Ren College) in Shanghai remains to be determined* His 
present whereabouts might furnish- a clue to Japanese intentions 
in the field of Muslim intrigue. 

iv, Iyad Ishaqi* Iyad Ishaqi (I* Ishakov in Russian), 
a Kazan Tatar novelist and playwright, known for his Pan-Turkic 
activities in Europe, arrived in Japan in 1933, invited by both 
Army and Foreign Office circles. He subsequently made a tour of Japan 
and Manchuria to draw the Muslim refugees from Russia into the 
organization called the Idel-Ural Cultural Association, also known 


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as the Iclel-Ural Independence League* A Turko-T^tar Muslim Congress 
at which Ishaqi presided was held in Kobe in May 1934* Ibrahim 
conducted prayers, and the last pretender to the Ottoman throne. 

Prince Abdul Kerim, made a brief speech* The delegates consisted 
of Tatars, Turks, Bashkirs, Uzbeks, Kirghiz, rjid 8arts* The purpose 
of the conference was the unification of all Turki Muslims in Asia 
to work for an independent Muslim state to be made up of parts of 
Russian Turkestan and Sinkiang and oriented in terms of "cooperation 
with Japan to build 'the New Order in East Asia.*" Ishaqi .subsequently 
founded the Pan-Turanic periodical HiHi Bayrak in Mukden along the 
lines of his Yani Milli Yul, sponsored by the German Ministry of 
Propaganda in Berlin* The last report on lyad Ishaqi places him 
in London in the summer of 1941, calling on the Polish General 
Sikorski in company with Mir Yaqub, an Azerbaijani refugee from Soviet 
Russia and- Bozkurt member* 

v. Yusuf Akchura Bey Oghlu. Yusuf Akchura Bey Oghlu 
(Yusuf Akchurin in Russian), a member of the famous Akchura family 
of Orenburg and Kazan, owners of the largest woolen mills in pre¬ 
revolutionary Russia,in 1941 was reported to be a-member of the 
Administrative Council of the Turko**Tatars in the Far East, bhether 
or not he is the same person as the man of the some name known for his 
Pan-Turkic writings who taught at the University of Ankara in 1935 
is not at protent known. If he is, the Japanese Foreign Office 


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must have scored another victory, for the man in question was at 
one time second only to Iyad Ishaqi and ILrahim in the prestige 
he possessed throughout the Russian Muslim world* Member of the 
Central Muslim Conmittee in Russia prior to the Revolution and 
subsequently publisher of three different Pan-Turkic periodicals 
in Constantinople, Akchura is considered the highest academic 
authority on Fan-Turanism in Europe, 

2. The Media 

a. Conferences# In her cultivation of Muslims, Japan 
has leaned heavily on conferences and congresses as means of 
propaganda and recruitment of agents. Conferences preceded and 
followed by considerable publicity have been held in Japan or 
Japanese-dominated territory. The delegates have traveled at Japan’s 
expense and have been feted while in Japan by .patriotic, army, 
government, and business circles, At least eleven such conferences 
have been staged to disseminate propaganda among the Muslims, rally 
them to Japan’s support, and help organize them into inilitantly 
pro-Japanese and anti-Soviet organizations# These are: (1) the 
Religious Congress, Tokyo, 1906; (2) the Race Equality Assembly, 
Tokyo, 1S19; (3) the Pan-A.sia Congress, Nagasaki, 1926; (4) Japan 
Muslim Conference, Tokyo, 1927; (5) the Young Asia Congress, Tokyo, 
1933; (6) the Turko-Tatnr Congress, Kobe, 1934; (7) the Muslim 


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/oiti-Communist Assembly, Harbin, 1936; (8) the First World Muslim 
Congress, Tokyo, 1939; (9) the Second Turko-Tatar Congress, Hsinking, 
1941; (10) the Second World Muslim Congress, Tokyo, 1943 (February); 

(11) the East Asia Religious Cooperative Conference, Tokyo, 1943 (June), 
b* The Press 

i* Japanese Propaganda in the Muslim Press . Following the 
1906 conference, Muslim newspapers throughout the world began to 
publish a growing volume of news from Japan: the Tatar Bayan ul-Hag 
in Kazan and Vakt in Orenburg; Terjuman in Crimea; Islam Dinnya-ssy , 

Turk Urdu , and Turk Udja gy in Turkey; Son 'at on Hirfat in India, 

It is worth noting that' many of the editors had visited Japan and that, 
in fact, several of the newspapers were not founded until after the 
conference, including the three Turkish newspapers whose editors 
were Muslim emigrants from Russia. Examination of the Muslim press 
outside the U.S.S.R, shows that a constant stream of pro-Japanese 
propaganda has been invading these periodicals, in ever-increasing 
quantity and of ever-increasing intensity, right up to and following 
the outbreak of the present war. Particularly vociferous, of course, 
have been those periodicals issued in' nxis or Japanese-occupied 
territory such as the Yani-Milli Yul in Berlin or the Mil Bayrak in 
Mukden, both published for Muslim refugees from the Soviet Union by 
Iyad Ishaqi who was invited to Japan from Germany in 1933 by Hayashi 
and other patriotic society men. 


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ii« Islamic Periodicals in J apan# Several Muslim 
periodicals intended for general circulation in the Muslim world, 
were successively established in Japan with the aid of the Foreign 
Office; Islamic Fraternity, in 1910, the newspaper Islam in 1911, 
Islamic Unity in 1914, The second was in Japanese, the first 
and third in both Japanese and English# An Arabic language press 
was not acquired until 1929 and not until then did Yapon liukhbiri 
begin publication in Turkish# The Arabic fortnightly review' Nippon 
appeared in 1938# In 1937 and 1938 a series of periodicals in 
Japanese with inserts in Turkic tongues spoken in Central Asia began 
publication# These were the Kaikyo Kenkyu, Faikyo-ken Kcnkyu 8osho, 
and the newspaper Islam which reappeared after several years* lapse# 
These publications wore organs of the newly organized Japanese 
Institute of Islamic 8tu lies and the Socitty for Islamic Culture, 
both semi-official organs of the Foreign Office, In 1938 the 
publication of Kaikyo Jijo or Islamic Conditions was begun, devoting 
a great deal of space to the Idel-Ural independence movement ani the 
Central Asiatic Muslims# 

c# Muslim Organizations in Japan and Occupied Territory 

i* The "Muslim Pact" of 1909* , or haps the mc^t important 
symbolic act of Japanese infiltration among the Muslims in Russian 
areas was the so-called "Muslim Pact" of 1909# This took the form of 

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an oath administered by Abdur Rashid Ibrahim, inscribed partly 
in Arabic and partly in Japanese, and deposited in a temple in 
Antung (^anchuria) after the signers had affixed their seals, "to 
be of one heart and one mind" in the pursuan.ce of their aim to promote 
Islam and its liberation from Russian chains. The signers, besides 
Ibrahim, were Mitsuru Toyama, Ryohei Uchida, Ki Inukai, Tsunetr.ro 
Uakano, Gapt. Katsutoshi Aoyanagi (subsequently the publisher of 
Dai-to, Great East Magazine, a periodical to "awaken the peoples 
of Asia to resist European advance" and also the head of a school 
for training political refugees in Japan in military and subversive 
tactics), Lieut. Colonel Bukeiji Ohara (officer of the General Staff 
and secretary of the Toa Dobunkai), Kinosuke Yamada (founder of the 
Ohuo University Law School and several times Minister of Justice in 
Kenseito or Constitutional Party cabinets). Hironaka Kono (politician 
and later, 1914, Minister of Commerce and Agriculture), and Yasuzo 
Nakayama (of whom nothing is known, except that he was, and probably 
still is, a member of the Black Dragon Society). The first Muslim 
organizations in Japan were the product of the work of the men who 
had signed the pact and of those of their Muslim collaborators who 
were in Japan at the time,. 

ii. The Tokyo Islamic Order. The Tokyo Islamic Order 
(Tokyo Kaikyo-Dan) was created with Ki Inukai’s help by Muhammad 


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Abd el-Hai Qurban Mli (Kurbungnli) in 1924. Its initial purpose 
.was the renting of a house for religious and educational services 
and the acquisition of a Muslim burial ground in the city. Inukai 
helped the organization with funds. In 1929 the Foreign Office^ 
presented it with an .urabic language press and the organization 
began,to publish the Turkish language periodical^Yapon Ifukhbiri , 
edited by Qurban Ali, and essentially a propaganda journal pur¬ 
porting to give news of the progress of Islam in Japan. It has 
been sent free to the Muslim press in Europe and Asia, 

iii. The Japan Residents’ Muslim League. The Japan 
Residents’Muclin League (Nippon Teikoku Zairyu Kaikyoto Ranmei) 
which undertook the expansion of Islamic work by "the printing 
of textbooks end religious books for world-wide uslim consumption”-- 
a good method for disseminating Japanese culture — was organized in 
1928 with-* the help of Toyama, Inukai, Kazuo Furushima, Takejiro 
Tokonami, and several other Japanese interested in the promotion of 
anti—Soviet work among the Muslims. The society printed the. Koran 
in Japanese and established a school for Muslim children, besides 
publishing a large number of pamphlets on Japan’s religious tolerance 
and her possible acceptance of Islam as a. state religion. A Tokyo 
broadcast of 18 June 1943 named Lieut, General Nobutaka Shioten 
as its president although until 1940, Qurban Ali was -always referred 
to as its official head. 


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iv. I* U» T# T# C# _j* The x del-dral Turko-Tatar 
Cultural Association (idel-Ural Turko Tatar Bunka Kyokai) also 
referred to by Tatars as the Idel-Ural Turko-Tatar Independence League, 

came into existence as the result of the arrival in Japan of Iyad 

1 

Ishaqi# Following a tour sponsored by the Foreign Office, branches 
were established during 1934 in Kobe, Osaka, and Nagoya in Japan, 
and in Mukden, Dairen, Harbin, Hailar, and Ksinking in Manchuria, 
Headquarters of the association were transferred from Tokyo to 
Hsinking in 1938, the p riodical Mill! Bryrak was begun in Mukden, 
and the society took an immediate stand in favor of an independent 
Tatar state between the Volga and the Mongolian border to be 
established with Japan’s help* 

v. The Society of Islamic Culture. The Society of 

Islamic Culture (-i-slam Bunka F.yokai) was organized by Teijiro 
Sakurna in Tokyo in 1935# The 1939 edition of the list of Cultural 
and .academic Organizations in Japan published by the (Hokusai Bunka 
Shinkokai, Tokyo) describes its activities'as: (1.) introduction of 

Japanese culture in Muslim areas; (2) investigation and study of Muslim 
areas; (3) publications and exhibitions of a suitable nature in Japan 
and abroad; (4) exchange of students and professors with Islamic 
countries and reception of Muslim guests in Japan; (5) translatibn 

of appropriate literature from and to Japanese; (6) maintenance of 
a lecture auditorium and study rooms fof Muslim students of Japanese 

f . ‘ t • 


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culture. The chief method of achieveing the above aims is through 
’’arranging for those ’properly connected’ to come to Japan.’’ The 
society’s present directors are Ryusaku Endo, ARio Kasamn, Tanetsugu 
^asa, Yo Nakamura, and ~hozo Murata. (shipping magnate, financier,- 
and now Japanese an ib ass ad or to the Philippines). Thu. Society’s 
organizer, Teijiro Sakuma, was at one time a Black Dragon agent in 
Russian Central Asia and along the Caspian °>ea and subsequently head 
of the Society of Light in Shanghai. 

vi. The Institute of Islamic Studies. The Institute of 
Islamic Studies (Kai-kyo Kenkyu—Sho) was organized in March 1938 
but in id ay of the scone year its direction was shifted to,' the Good 
Neighbor Association (Zenrin Kyokai, org. 1954), an a.gency specifi¬ 
cally oriented toward work in Mongolia and the training of Mongol 
students in Japan. The Institute’s research hfcs been directed toward 
the military and political needs of the time and it has cooperated 
closely with the Good Neighbor Sohool (Zenrin $hoin) run by the 
Good Neighbor Association at 170 lishickubo 4-chome, Yodob&shi-ku, 
Tokyo, for the training of personnel to work in the various areas of 
continental Asia. The society’s directors are Koli Okubo, Hajimc 
Xobaynshi, rnd Hisao Matsuda. Okubo is a noted student of Turkic 
peoples, and his Prussian is only slightly loss perfect than his 
Turkish. He is also active in the Central iSia Research .association 
(Chuo Ajiya Kenkyu Kr.i) which is a subsidiary of both the Institute 


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of Islamic studies and the Good Neighbor Association. The 
directors of the latter, as ivell as of .its personnel school, have 
been Sanetnka Ichijo (Prince and member of• the House of Peers), 
Matasuko Kusuyamn (large stockholder of the Kanegafuchu Spinning 
Company), Saihin Ikeda (Hitsin banker and former Minister' of Finance), 
end General Senjure Hayashi (d. February 1943). 

vii. The Greater Japan Muslim League. The Great r 
Japan Muslim League (Dai Nippon Kajkyo Kyokai, renamed in September 
1939 the Dai Nippon Kaikyoto Kyokai), formed in 1938 with General 
•Senjuro Hayashi as president and Ghozo Murata and ..bdur-R'ashid 
Ibrahim as co-directors, was the authoritative body established 
to unify and supervise all other Muslim organizations -in Japan, 
Manchuria, and occupied territory. From the beginning its direction 
has been in military hands, and although shortly after its organiza¬ 
tion the Official title of head was transferred from General Hayashi 
(who became vice-president) to Abdur -Rashid Ibrahim, resident of 
Japan since 1933 (d. September 1944), the League has remained 
the army.tool for control of Muslim elements in Japanese-occupied 
territory. Like the Russian Emigrants 1 Bureau in Manchuria and 
occupied China, the Greater Japan Muslim league has ceased to be 
the weapon of the Foreign Office, which temporarily took a back 
seat in Japan's foreign relations, and has‘beeerae the direct tool 


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of Japanese military administration in occupied areas. 

viii* The Muslim stude nt League* The Muslim Student 
League, inaugurated 30 July 3.943, and aiming at "the enlightenment of 
Muslims throughout East .'^ia for*their positive cooperation in the 
establishment of the co-prosperity sphere" (Tokyo in Ehglish, 

30 July 1943)*according to all evidence so far seems to have been 
nothing but an agency facilitating careful watch over those Muslim 
students now in Japan* The compulsory membership is divided into 
groups, each with a chairman, reporting to r higher committee, which 
in turn reports to a still higher committee consisting of the Japanese 
"Muslims• " It-is still too young an organization to be judged 
correctly* 

3* T he Content 

a* The Influence of Islam in Japan* The propaganda itself, 

- - ■ - ; -- - 

in its basic pattern, has not varied much in the past thirty-seven 
years* its main thanes have been twoj the growing influence of 
Islam in Japan and the unity of Muslim and Japanese interests* 

The first theme has been pursued by subtly creating the 
impression that Islam holds a high place in Japan and that there 
exists in Japan a large Muslim community favored by the government, 
and constantly augmented by arrivals from abroad (primarily due to 
"Communist persecution") and by conversions at home f Following the 
1906 conference the editor of the Egyption paper al-Irshad wrote 


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from Japan that he had aiready made 12,000 converts including 
several high government officials* Examination of the Muslim 
periodical press from 1906 to 1942 discloses a steady if inconspicuous 
flow of such articles ass "Progress of Islam in' Japan," "Muslim 
Missionaries Arrive in Yokohama," "Kobe Mosque Celebration," 

"Another Islamic Periodical in Tokyo," "Opening of a Muslim School 
in Japan," "Japanese Notables, Converted to Islam," and the like. 

The writers of these articles nowhere betray the fact that there 
are only about 600 Muslims in Japan, most of whom are Tatars from 
Russia. Rumors that the Emperor was considering the introduction 
of Islam into Japan- as a state religion have reappeared during each 
decade of this century. The frequent mention of Cabinet ministers, 

army officials, or titled nobility as participants in Muslim functions 

* 

conveys on impression that Islam holds a high place in Japan. 

b.- The Unity of Muslim and Japanese Interests# The second 
constant theme has been emphasis on the identity of interests existing 
between those professing the Muslim religion both south and north 
of the Russian border, on the one hand, and the Japanese people on 
the other. Close examination of this theme as utilized by Japanese 
propagandists reveals five methods of approach: arguments respectively 
for religious, racial, geographic, political, and cultural unity 
between Japanese and Muslims. 


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i# Religious Unity , Japan makes it clear that as 
a non-Christian nation, she, like the Muslims, is opposed to -the 
expansion of Christian influence and domination# She supports 
Pan-Islomic periodicals rnd calls on the union of all Muslim peoples 
with Japan to throw off Christian aggression in Asia# The Japanese 
claim that thirty Turki-language papers carried Japanese propaganda 
into Russia following the Russo-Japanese War finds an interesting 
corroboration in the report of Hadjet-Lache agent for the Tsarist 
Okhrnna investigating Muslim disturbances on the Volga, and in the 
Central Asiatic regions in 1907? "Until 1904 th-.-re has been only 
pan-Islomic talk, but since the war there have appeared pan-Islamic 
organizations which are given systematic and intelligent guidance 
in the fern of fundstrained orgruiizers, rnd literature by the 
little yellow men from the Islands (Japan). The latter either come 
themselves or, more frequently, use specially trained Turki who 
gain admission into'Russia as nullahs • If Russian consuls knew 
anything of Islam and bothered to question these mullahs before 
issuing visas they would find that the latter know suprisingly 
little about the Koran and a great deal about quite different matters." 
Recently Japan-se propagandists have strengthened the religious angle 
by clever manipulation of the fact that sixty million Muslims, of the 
Dutch East Indies and the Philippines have been added to the Jinpire 
and "are prospering under benevolent guidance of the Japanese army*" 


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Simultaneouo references to the ’’welfare and prosperity of thousands 
of refugees from Soviet persecution in Manchuria, who are now 
leading a peaceful life under full, protection, of the Japanese array," 
have fourid their way into publications of Muslim refugees from the 
Soviet Union throughout Europe and the East* All this has been 
designed to create and undoubtedly has created for those without 
first-hand experience of Japanese rule, the needed impression of 
Japanese friendliness and respect for Islam* 

ii* Racial Unity* Racially the Japanese have utilized 
both the Pan-Mongol and the Pan-Turan themes* h'hile reminding the 
Hazara elements in Afghanistan of the Mongol origin of the Japanese 
they have also claimed Turkic descent when dealing with the Central 
Asiatic and Tatar Muslims: "The two peoples /~.e*, the Turki Muslims 
and the Japanese-/ have the same colo-r of hair a’nd eyes and there is 
evidence that -in addition to the common racial origin, both belong 
to the same linguistic stock*" /Taishin Ajiya Taikan, p. 29o/. 

Rather startling to- a Western reader are these statements utilized 
in propaganda not only toward the Turki Muslims but also toward the 
Finns and the Hungarians* (it should be noted that one of General 
Akashi’s most trusted aides, who stirred revolt behind Russian lines 
in 1904, was a Finn*) The J.coj onese-Hungarian Society, established 
in 1924, has stressed the common racial origin of the two peoples. In 
1921 the Pan-Turan Society' of Budapest was asked to maintain a permanent 


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representative in Japan at Japan T s expense* The Society of the 
white holf symbolized the ccmiton descent of the Turki and the Mongol 
peoples from a white she-woIf , while the Tu ran society of Japan 
has worked almost entirely in terms of Japan’s alliance with the 
Turki peoples on grounds of common racial origin* Tlv. two out¬ 
standing exponents of Pan-Turanism among Russian Muslims--Yusuf 
Akchura and Iyad Ishaqi--have both been invited to Japan* 

iiio Geographic Unity , Geographically, Japan has 
stressed the fact that, like the majority of the Muslims, she also 
is an Asiatic nation interested in ..sia for the Asiatics, and in 
continental freedom from European domination* 

iv* Political Unity, Politically, like the majority of . 

X 

Asiatic Muslims, Japan has opposed both British imperialism and 
Soviet Communism and from th* beginning, has b*~en openly and actively 
anti-Communist. Thus her position in Asia, vis-*--vis Russia and 
Britain, coincides with the political aspirations of the Muslims, 
who, in their Ion -, suspicion of both, tend to overlook Japan’s own 
fpbitions • 

v* Cultural Unity* Culturally, Japan ms played up the 
common trait of respect for the warrior tradition and for the 
male-dominated or patriarchal family system where "nan has his 
sphere and woman has hers - -unlike the ’.vest,” Th*- last theme 
was particularly effective among the older generation of Muslims 
in Russia who bitterly resented Soviet attempts to break down the 

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old patriarchal family system ?nd ab Gish iurdah (veiling an 1 
seclusion of women)* Interestingly enough, some objection to 


the Muslim practice of polygamy arose within Japanese circles 
when the promoters of the "Muslim policy" tried to push the 
official recognition of Islam through the Diet in 1939* The 
matter was finally solved by the official explanation that "Islam 
permits polygamy so as to make women better wives. In fear of the 
husband tricing another, a woman is more obedient and considerate 
of her husband’s wishes and thus a more stable family system results," 
c, Intelligence* 

lc Bases of Operation, Exclusive of Sinki?mg (which is 
dis cus s ed extens ively in *’ Japanes e Inf iltration among I .us 1 ims in 
China," R & A bo. 890,1) there are these main bases for Japanese 
intelligence activities among the Muslims of the Soviet Onion: Turkey, 
Iran, and Afghanistan* 


a. Turkey has been important because the traditionally 
close cultural ties between Turkey and Turki nationals of Russia 
have made it the haven for the largest number of I usiim refugees 
from the Soviet Union. Pan-Islamic and PaiirTuranic societies and 


centers have their headquarters there* Almost every Par-Turkist among 
prominent emigre Russian Muslims there is r mi ember of the Dozkurt 


or Grey wolf Society whose goal .is the unification of all Turki 


Muslims into an autonomous state s tret china' from Asia minor to 


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Mongolia* Across the Turkish border in A.sia Minor are the 
frequently rebellious Muslin Caucasus tribes and the rich oil 
wells of Baku, Thus Turkey is ?n important center for economic 
as well as political intelligence* Only the cordial relations 
between the Soviet and the Turkish governments have hindered 
Japanese activities there. It is possible that Turkish police 
interference (as for example the arrests of the remnants of 
Enver Pasha’s followers in 1926 and the close police surveillance 
of the Bozkurt) was a contributing cause of the Japanese invitation 
to such notoriously anti-Soviet and anti-Russian i-usiim Tatars is. 
Akchurn and Ishaqi to come to Japan and Manchuria* In spite of 
Turkish vigilance, recent reports from Kabul trace the anti-Sovi* t 
plot of Bokharan emigres there to the Bozkurt personages in Turkey. 

b. Iran’s proximity to both the Caucasus and Central 
Asiatic Soviet territories particularly to the nomadic Turkmen 
tribes, lias male it another propitious base for Japanese intelligence, 
increasingly so, since the opening of the Japanese Legation there in 
1929 * Its importance is illustrated by the fact that such experienced 
Muslim and Russian experts rs kio Kasama and Tentaro Joda have hell 
diplomatic posts in Teheran, the latter openly* assigned there for 
"special duty." Rasama’s activities on behalf of the Japanese Muslim 
policy have already been noted. A doctor of law, a noted author cn 
Muslim topics, a diplomat of some note with past posts in Turkey, 
Roumania, Portugal, and Geneva, the very fact of his assignment to 

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- 4a - 

Iran reveals the post's importance, Kas&mu in called by a Japanese 
writer an ’’authority on Isl<am’s role in Asia” /Tokyo Dispatch in 
Buenos Aires Diario Nan-Aj Uovember 26, 19427* Ucda’s background is 
no less significant# A graduate of °.t* -Petersburg Imperial University 
assistant to General Akashi in St* Petersburg during the latter’s 
negotiations with Ibrahim, arid counselor of the Japanese legation 
in Moscow through the twenties, his subsequent assignments have 
alternated between Russia and Iran, with brief periods on the 
’’special staff” of the Foreign Office in Tokyo* The importance 
of Iran as a Japanese espionage center, however, has declined 
with the expulsion of the Japanese diplomats on Japan’s entrance 
into the present war* 

c. Afghanistan as a ba^o s -.ems to have'been of increasing 
consequence since the fall of the somewhat pro-soviet .emanul-lah in 
1923* Its significance has been enhanced by two' factors: active 
antagonism to the Soviet Union and its religious and Muslim policies 
on the one hand (this has been the keynote of Afghan foreign policy 
since 1929), and the presence of a large element of Tadjiks, Uzbeks, • 
Turkmen, and even Kirghiz within Afghanistan’s own opulation, Th 
nomads, two-thirds of whom live on Soviet territory and approximately 
a third in northern Afghanistan, have made the closing of th* ifghah- 
Soviot border virtually impossible. The mountainous nature of the 
area, the.semi-primitive culture, and the deep hostility to all 


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restrictions not compatible with the established r.o ie of life-- 
these make feasible, without too much difficulty; the organization 
of intelligence utilizing anti-Soviet sentiments of the people. 

The mixture of nationalities on the Sbviet-. fohan-Siiikicng border 
mokes this corner if Afghanistan particularly susceptible tc in¬ 
filtration by alien elements• .Afghanistan’s present neutrality, 
which is due to the prevalence there of anti-British and anti-Russian, 
sentiments, makes it particularly important® 

2 8 Types c.f /gents ® Three types of agents: may be distinguished 
within the pabturn of J ipnheso intelligence; the resident, the 
itinerant, and the native, <« 

a. The resident agent is usually known by the local popu¬ 
lation to be Japanese, but resides over long periods--of time in the 
country to be surveyed, becomes if possible a citizen, hnd parti¬ 
cipates in the life of the community febout him® His life is devoid 
of excitement or adventure and his strength lies in his community 
status, his respectability, his apparent devotion to the adopted 
country, and the trust and friendship of the native residents® 
good example is the life of Fuzo Hattori* 

Hattori was a shopkeeper in a small town in Japan# He ■ cam 
acquainted with dchida when he was in his teens and was attracted by 
the ideals of the Genyosha® Quietly he set up a small store in 
Iman, Siberia, in 1397, He sold small Japanese articles of wvery 
nature. In 1899 he opened snath r shop in Hikolsk-Ussurisk, Uchida’s 






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men, operating from the Vladivostok Judo School, used his stores 
as headquarters in that vicinity# Messages were left there, information! 
picked up, and photographs developed* V/Len the war with Russia broke 
out in 1904, Fuzo became guide and interpreter for the army. He knew 
the locality where he lived near the border exceedingly well and also 
knew the language. Ho knew the peculiarities and the personal 
characteristics of the local officials, the frontier guards, all his 
neighbors a He was a small man, not very well educated, but patient, 
reliable,, and with a purpose which gave his life a meaning and devotion 
akin to religion# In October 1905, when the war wars over, he went 
right back to his shop in Iman. The Russians and the Tatars in that 
small town never knew that he had helped the army during the war# 

They expressed sympathy for him because he had to close the store 
and suffer losses# In 1917 "when the Romanoffs fell, his house was 
the center of help to Captain Kalmykov in Ussuri*'from the Japanese 
Army#’* Arms and gold mysteriously appeared there and wen-; picked up 
by Kalmykov-menwho, supposedly anti -Bolshevik, were also working to 
undermine the Siberian government of Admiral Kolchak# in 1919 the 
Japanese army moved into the Ussuri region to ’’restore order” and 
the quiet shop and house suddenly became a busy army headquarters. 

This time, evidently, the inhabitants had become somewhat aware of ilattori’s 
activities# According to his life history in Toa Sankaku, ”in 
September 1921 he made an unwilling final withdrawal from Siberia#” 

Fuzo opened another little shop, this time on the Chinese Eastern 
Railway in Manchuria, but soon ’’become ill and retired to a village 
north of Biwa Lake in Japan, where ho died December 10, 1924,” Fuzo 
Kattori was fifty-two when he died. For* twenty-seven years he had 
served the patriotic cause. Few knew what he was doing, and money 
certainly was not his object. In spirit, Hattori was not far from 
the missionaries who go abroad to a life of inconvenience and isola¬ 
tion, to spread the gospel in which they believe. Their deep con¬ 
viction makes such agents doubly dangerous. 

b© The itinerant type, on the other hand, lives a life 
full of danger, exceitement, adventure, end hardship. H e requires 
a long and strenuous training previous to undertaking operations# 

Unlike the resident agent he is compelled to live for many years 
deprived of all normal family relationships and human friendships• 

Takehiko Fujishima, for example, spent son*., years in China studying 


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the language, manners, and customs before joining the Rokuzendo 
in 1887* He assumed a Chinese name and clothes and gre’.v a pigtail* 
Even the Russians failed to learn his true nationality on arresting 
him in Kashgar in 1889* He pursued his work until 1895, at which 
time he was caught in the guise of a Buddhist monk and beheaded as 
a spy by the Chinese authorities during the Sino-Japanese war* 

Jiro Soejima went to Kirghizia in 1924 after many years of study of 
the Turki tongues and cultures and returned unmolested in 192G# 

His purpose was "investigating conditions in Central Asia so that 
some way may be found to unite all Asiatic races, particularly 
the Muslims, to present a united front against the Europeans— 
he was also interested in railroads" (Toa 8enkaku, Vol# II, p# 893)# 
Kotai Koizumi, after studying in the Tokyo School of Foreign languages 
and in the Military Academy, lived for five years with Qurban Ali 
to acquire not only the right accent but the right mannerisms before 
leaving for Russia in 1929# Although he adopted the Muslim faith and 
took a Muslin name before his departure, Toa Senkaku prudently does 
not disclose the latter since the gentleman in question is prsumably 
still active in the field (he is not included in the Toa 8enkaku list 
of dead heroes). 

The disguise adopted is not necessarily that of the country 
in which the agent works# A considerable number of-agents in addition 
to learning the Turki and Tatar dialects of Russia, first learn to 

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master the disguise of a neighboring territory whose nationals 
would arouse no surprise or suspicion. A Japanese propagandist dis¬ 
guised as a Mongolian Muslim in Tadjikistan, for example, carries 
added conviction, while unlikely to be recognized as non-Mongol by 
the Tadjiks, This observation is supported by Hadjet-Lache’s Okhrana 
report noting the presence of Manchurian, Chinese, and Mongol organizers 
among the ^ral Muslims, who, he claims, work for the Japan- se, It 
is more likely that they were actually Japanese posing as Chinese 
or Mongols like the members of the llakuzendo in the eighties and 
nineties and some of the later investigators. Zuicho Tachibana, 
for example, traveled as a Buddhist priest through Mongolia and 
Siberia before reaching Russian Central Asia in 1910* Taichi Uehara, 
once arrested in Tashkent but released on personal appeal to the Tsar 
by General Araki, spoke flbont Russian and Mongol, He used the 

f 

Chinese name Yuan Shang-chih, Hidenari Nami and Kyodo Kawamura, 
who studied the possibilities of an autonomus Muslim state in Central 
AS.ia and collected intelligence for the purpose, both lives as Chinese 
in Sinkiang, the former using the Chinese neme Ma Ch ! eng-lung, A 
group led by Eajirae Cato, the head of the Black Dragon chapter in 
Tsingtao, which was dispatched to Russian Central Asia in 1917 ”to 
stay there for several years and study conditions’ 1 (Nikkan Goho Hishi, 
Appendix, Tokyo, 1931, p, 6 ), had all lived in China for many years 
and could easily pass for Chinese in Russia, 


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- 49 - 

Disguise is not the invariable accompaniment of the 
Japanese intelligence agent* Yearly pilgrimages to Mecca 
provide another channel for collecting information# not only 
from native Turki Muslims annually assembled there, but also from 
other arriving Japanese "Muslimseither in or out of disguise* 
Throughout the thirties there were annual pilgrimages to Mecca by 
a group of young officers, promoters of "more activity among the 
Muslims" who, pitching their tents alongside Bokharan refugees from 
Sinkiang and Turkey, managed tu make valuable contacts and possibly 
do some recruiting among the refugees# Taro Yamamoto’s Mecca trips, 
for example, earned him an invitation to Afghanistan as a "student 
of Islam” in 1933# He remained there until 1941 and possibly 
continued the work begun in 1925 by Yasuncsuke T.anabe, intelligence 
and subversion agent for Central Asia who set up headquarters in Kabul 
for his work with the various Turkmen organizations in Central Asia# 
Nakabe Wak&bay&shi and Ippei Tanaka (d. 1934) also participated in 
the Mecca trips, acting both as propagandists end as intelligence 
agents for Japan in the guise (or perhaps hentstly) of devoted Muslims* 
c* As native agents, the Japanese have used both the 
Russian and the non-Russian nationals among the Muslims in Asia* It 
is not known to what extent they wore aware of being used Japan* 

The procee lings of the Soviet trials involving Muslim espionage in 
Central Asia and Mongolia name such Muslim celebrities ns Fahrutdinov 
and Tajimanov, directors of the Central Muslim League of IT SR, 


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also called the All - Union Muslim League, as knowingly contributing 
to the anti-Soviet activities of the foreign powers# A large' 
number of minor defendants who acted as couriers, messengers, 
and informants are also listed. The short sentences, given to the 
many defendants, ranging from six months to ten years (which is light 
for Soviet espionage convictions), would seem to imply Soviet rocogni 
tion of the unconscious part they played in the espionage* 

Even so it is not known to what extent such men as Sultan Ali 
(Russian form: Sultangaliev), chief defendant in the Tashkent 
trials for treason in 1929, or Mutallieb Satybaldyev, the main 
personage of tho Xokhand trials of 1934, were cognizant of being 
tools of Japanese intelligence# Quite possibly they were sincere 
devotees of Muslim autonomy who little dreamed that Japan find 
Germany were subsidizing their colleagues in Sinkiang, Iran, 
and Afghanistan in return for information obtained# It must 
be noted that all known Japanese pronouncements stress Japan*s 
desire to aid independence movements of Asiatic Muslims and 
nothing else. Thus a great deal of information regarding forti¬ 
fications, industries, find garrisons in the Soviet Union may have 
passed into Japanese hands without the knowledge of those young 
Muslims in Soviet Asia who thought they wore merely in touch with 
their compatriots south of the border. Mustafa Tchokai (Russian 
form: M. A. Tchokaieff), ardent promoter of Turkestan independence 


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from Russia and active member of the Bozkurt Society, makes an 
interesting claim regarding the partisans of his cause in the Soviet 
Union; There are tens of thousands of *ur students in upper Soviet 
schools..,. It is again these same students from the Soviet schools 
who head the struggle for liberation of Turkistan frem the Bolshevist 
dictatorships" (it. A. Tchokaieff "Fifteen Years of Bolshevik Rule 
in Turkistan," Journal of the Royal Central Asia Society , July 1933, 
p* 359), Since several of Tohokai*s associates (Ibrahim, Iyad 
Ishaqi, Akchura) have had close connections with the Japanese, it is 
natural that a great deal of the information collected by such men 
as Tchokai reached Japanese hands# 

Do Subversion' and Sabotage 

By subversion is meant those Japanese tactics that deal 
neither with open propaganda nor merely with the collection of in¬ 
formation but involve the sponsorship of revolutionary and separatist 
movements, the sabotage of industrial enterprises, and the artificial 
creation of disturbances# 

Japanese encouragement and aid to Muslim independence movements 
began when Ah as hi first went to Russia to organize popular uprisings 
in the Russian rear before the Russo-Japanese War, The period of 
the revolution, 1917-22, is rich in illustrations of Japanese intrigue 
in Russian internal disturbances. From Semenov’s plfns for an autonomous 
Siberia (non-Muslim) through Baron Ungcrn von Sternberg's colossal 
dream of an independent Mongol Empire to Qurban Jili’s independent 


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Bashkiria and Kirghizia -- there runs a thread of Japanese 
instigation, less by the Foreign Office than by the army and the 
patriotic societies* Black Dragon publications recount the bio¬ 
graphies of men who hc-lped "Muslim independence” by sending arms, 
trained advisers, and money* Qurban Ali T s trip to Japan with ten 
Bashkir officers in 1921 was on behalf of ju^t such an independence 
scheme in Central j\sia« . 

Soviet accusations of planned sabotage and of stirring of dis¬ 
content among the natives of Central Asia and Buriat-Mongolia un¬ 
doubtedly are based in fact. Uchida’s biography abounds in anecdotes 
of plans to blow up Russian railways, to impede construction of 
highways, and to "wake up Russian-held Muslims to independence ideas*" 
The concentration of many vital Russian industries (oil, iron, steel) 
in Muslim areas would make it highly advisable, from the vievjpoint 
of obstructing Russian defense preparations, to create disturbances 
and organize sabotage in these districts. Acts of espionage and 
subversion by members of the All-Russian Muslim League (organized in 
1903) and its heir, the Central Muslim League of USSft, have been 
admitted both by the Japanese and by a number of arrested persons 
in connection with the Muslim trials in Tashkent (1929), Kokhnnd 

t 

(1935), and Er^vnb,, Buriat-Mongolia (1939). Thus subversion and 
sabotage have gone hand in hand with propaganda and intelligence to 
fP'PK- the pattern of Japanese infiltration among the Soviet Muslins, 


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IV. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS 

Despite the scarcity of direct information since Japan's 
Entrance into the present war, several new trends of infiltration 
operations have become apparent. 

Japonose propaganda directed to Muslims has generally 
increased in volume. There has, however, been a subtle but nonetheless 
noticeable change in its political as well as its geographic 
orientation. Politically, Communism has given place to "Anglo- 
American imperialism" as the main foe of Islam, while the geographic 
direction of Japanese propaganda has veered to tho south. The 
Muslims of I n dia, Malaya, and the Dutch East Indies now take ■ 
precedence over Soviet Muslims both as objects and as targets of 
Japanese press and radio propaganda. Descriptions of Soviet perse¬ 
cutions have given place to -glowing accounts of the happy life of 
the Malayan Muslims under Japanese rule, on the one hand, and -calls 
to the Middle and the: Near Eastern Muslims to- throw off "the 
yoke of jjnglo-American imperialism," on the other, (See, for 
example, Ibrahim's radio appeal, FCC Daily 27 April 1944), The 
Hsinking radio still talks in terms of fighting communism but 
the subtle implication is that the main enemy is the Chinese 
rather than the Soviet Communists. 

Moreover, the war, in which Germany is fighting Russia 


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•while Japan remains neutral, has brought considerable Japanese 
collaboration with Germany on Muslim policy and a corresponding 
delimitation of spheres of overt leadership* As Japan has become 
increasingly active in soutneastern Muslim areas, Germany has - taken 
the lead in work with Soviet Muslims. An understanding is implied 
by the arrival in Japan of the Indian nationalist- leader, Bose, 
while Iyad Ishaqi, resident in Japan since 1933, lias returned to 
Europe# The speedy rise of numerous Muslin organizations in Berlin 
during 1943 is reminiscent of similar activities in Tokyo between . 

1933 fend 1939. In January 1943 the Central Muslim Institute, modeled 
along the lines of the Institute of Islamic Studies, in Tokyo, was 
opened in Berlin. Officiating at the inauguration was the Grand 
Mufti Amin el-IIusaini, of Jerusalem,_ one-time refugee from British 
authorities in the Japanese Legation in Iron. In- April the Kalmyck 
National Committee was fanned. In June the Tatarische Mittelstelle 
(Tatar Central League) v/as founded to unite all Idel-Jral -Muslim 
peoples. During the same month the Azerbaijan National Committee 
appeared in Berlin, its leaders being- Atamalibek and Hi.lal Mudji . 

(the "Voice of Germany" to Azerbaijan on Berlin broadcasts), both 
Bozkurt members and associates of Ibrahim and Iyad ^shaqi in 'Pon- 
Islamic work. All these organizations have declared themselves in 
favor of Muslim autonomy from the Soviet Union ..nd as supporting both 
Japanese plans for Asia and German plans for Europe* 

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In Afghanistan, where the Japanese and the Germans have 
used the sane informants, the Japanese have recently switched 
from anti-Soviet to anti-British activities, while the Germans 
have taken- an active part in the sponsorship of anti-Soviet 
Bokharan refugees * The plot disclosed in April 1943 to overthrow 
Soviet rule in Bokhara was the result of this sponsorship of anti- 
Soviet elements with Bczkurt connections in northern Afghanistan 
elements long known for their Japanese connections. 

In spite of-these recent trends, it would be a mistake to 
assume Japanese departure from the field of Muslim intrigue in 
Soviet areas, Afghan students^ returning to Kabul from Japan report 
a considerable number of Tadjik, Kazak, and Turkmen students in 
Japanese institutions. The Hsinking. Japanese-controlled, radio 
broadcasts even today Japanese propaganda in several Central Asiatic 
tongues« Japan*s present overt inactivity is undoubtedly only 
temporary, and -there is every reason to' believe that she is 
continuing quietly to build up contacts in the Muslim areas adjoining 
her territory while abstaining from -evert act5.viti. s only in the 
interest of preserving Russian neutrality.* 


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APPENDIX I 
QRG .NIZilTTONS 

The fifty-four organizations listed below by no means 
exhaust the field© They are merely those concerning which infor¬ 
mation is available© 


Administrative Council of Turko-Tatars in the Far East© See 
Turko-Tatar Far Eastern Council© 

1© Afghanistan Club , Kazan-Kaikan, Kasumigaseki 3-chone Kojimachi-ku, 
Tokyoj org© 1935 for the "study of conditions in Afghanistan and 
neighboring countries and for the promotion of Afghan-Japanese 
friendship" by Yasunosuke Tanabe and Masaji Inoue, former Black 
Dragon intelligence agents in Afghanistan and Russian Central 
AiS ia© The present directors also include Torikichi Obata, Iwane 
Matsui, and Shigenori Togo© Membership « 120 in 1939© 

2© Afghan-Japan Chamber of Commerce, org# in Kabul by the Japanese in 
the early thirties© 

Ajiya Gikai# See Reawakening of Asia Society© 

3# Azerbaijan National Committee , org© in'Berlin, June 1943, to work 
for the Azerbaijan independence from Russia# 

4# Black Dragon Language School , orgo in 1901 by the Black Dragon 
Society to teach languages spoken in Russia© 

5# Black Dragon Society (Kokuryukai), org© by Ryohei Uchida in 1901© 
Its present head is Yoshihisa Kuzuu. 

6* Black Oc e an Society . (Genyosha), org© by Mitsuru Toyama in Fukuoka 
in 1879# 

Bozkurt© See Grey Wolf Society© 

7# Co ntra! Asia Research .As sociation (Chuo Ajiya Kenkyu Kai), a 

subsidiary of the Institute of Islamic Studios and of the Good 
Neighbor Association# 


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8» Central Muslin Institute jorg# in Berlin, January 1943, to 
coordinate German activities among the Muslims* 

Chuo. Ajiya Kenkyu Kai* See Central Asia Research Association# 

Dai-A-Gikai* See Reawakening of Greater Asia Society* 

D a i-Ajiya Kyokai. See Great Asia Association,. 

D p i Nippon Kaikyo Kyokai. See Greater Japan Muslin League. 

D a i Nippon Kaikyoto Kyokai, same as above. See Greater Japan Muslin 
League. 

Dobunkai. See One-Culture Society* 

9* East Asia One-Culture School (Toa Dobun Shein or Tung Men College), 
orge in Shanghai in 1900 for'the purpose' of training infiltration 
agents into nsiatic countries, and presently located in Chiaotung 
University, on Ave* Haig* 

10* East Asia One-Culture Society (Toa Dobunkai), org* by Ki Inukai 
in 1898 together with the East A«.ia One-Culture School to work 
for the unification of all Asiatic peoples, 

11. East A§ia Society (Toa-kai) merged with the.One-Culture Society 

(Dobunkai) to form the East Asia One-Culture Society in 1898-* 

. See p. 10. 

12. East Asia Students 1 Society , org. in Tokyo, 10 July 1942, with 

General Senjure Hayashi as president, and predecessor of the 
Mus1in Students * League « 

13. Foreign Office , Japanese. 

Genyosha. See Black Ocean Society* 

14. Good Neighbor Association (Zenrin Kyokai), org* in 1934 by General 

Senjure Hayashi, then war minister, for the purpose of "promoting 
amity.among the neighboring races,” especially the Mongols and 
the Central Asiatics* 

15* Good Neighbor School (Zenrin ShoinJ at 1TO, Nishiokubc 4-chome 

Yodobashi-ku, Tokyo, in existence since 1895 to train infiltra¬ 
tion agents into Russia, China, Korea, Mongolia, Manchuria and 
Russian Central Asia* 


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16* Great Asia Association (bai-Ajla Kyokai),-org. in 1934 in Tokyo 
by General Iwane Hatsui, Jinichi Yano, and Kengo Murakawa to 
collect information on all the Asiatic countries primarily by 
utilizing the Japanese residents already .in those countries. The 
society runs a school for training these persons when they are 
in Japan for visits arranged by the Association* 

17* Greater Japan Muslim League.(Dai Nippon Kaikyo Kyokai or Dpi Nippon 
Kaikyoto Kyokai), org. in Tokyo in 1938 by General Senjuro 
Hayashi, Shozo Murata, and Abdur Rashid Ibrahim to coordinate, 
the activities of all the Muslim organizations in Japan and 
Manchuria. 


18* Grey Rolf Society (Bozkurt), a Pan-Turanic group with headquarters 
in Ankara, consisting of Muslim refugees from the Soviet Union 
and a few native Turks who- are working for.the creation of a 
pan-Turkic state to stretch from Asia Minor through Russian and 
Chinese Turkestan* , • 

Hakuro Kai* See Society of the White Wolf* 

19* Hall, of Pleasurable Rel-ights (Rakuzendo), org. by Keiiehi Arab in 
Hankow in 1837,to scream the activities of a group of infiltra- 
tion agents into Sinkiang and Russian Central Asia. 

Idel-Ural Bunka Kyokr-i, See Tdel Ural Cultured Association* 

20* Idel-Ural Cultural Association , org. by lyad Ishaqi in Tokyo, .1934, 
to unite the Tatars in the Far East for purposes of working toward 
an independent Turko-T.atar State in Central Asia with Japanese 
help. Its present headquarters are in Mukden* 

Idel-Ural Independence League, same as Idel-Ural Cultural Association 

Idel-Ural Turko-Tatar Cultural Association (I•U*T.T*C.A* < ), same as 
Idel-Ural Cultural Association, 

21, Imperial Religious federation , established in May 1942 in Tokyo 
for the purpose of. uniting, supervising, and coordinating the 
activities of all the religioU? faiths in Japan, Manchuria, China, 
Mongolia, Indochina, Thailand, Burma, India, ’Ceylon, Malaya, find 
the East Indies* 


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22® Institute of Islamic Studies (Kaikyo Kenkyu-sho), org® March 

1933. under the auspices of the Foreign Office and the Army to 
collaborate with the Good Neighbor Association in research, 
intelligence, and the training, of Hu-slim students and Japan*.se 
students of Islam for work in Muslim areas• 

Islam Bunka Kyokai® See Society of Islamic Culture® 

23® Islamic Cultural Institute in Dairen, founded by the Japanese and 

in 1942 headed by Cheng 'Te-ch’un with an enrollment of 80 students 
and up to.March 1942, 100 graduates working under Japanese sponsor 
ship in various Muslim territories of continental Asia® 

24* Japan Residents’ Muslim League (Nippon Teikcku Zairyu Kaikyotc 

Rudmei), o^g® in 1923 in Tokyo by Inukai, Tv)yame, and Qurban Ali 
to disseminate Japanese propaganda among the Muslims® 

25® Japan Turkish Society (Nichi-Do Hyokai) at 6, Marunouchi 3-chome, 
Kojima ;hik\.\, Tokyo, org® in 1926, by Mas aji Inoue, industrialist. 
Black Dragon member, later organizer of the Afghanistan Club, 
and formerly Black Dragon intelligence agent for Russian Central 
Asia. It was formed following the arrest and execution in Turkey 
of the remnants of Enver Pasha’s group and is active in promoting 
contact with Muslim refugees from Turkey and Russia who are inter¬ 
ested in establishing an independent Turki state in Central Asia® 

26® Japanese Army Intelligence (G«2) or the Second department of the 
General Staff, one of the foremost agents of infiltration among 
the Muslim since the latter part of the last century® 

Japaneso-Hungarian Society, See Nippon-Hungary Society of Tokyo.® 

27. Japanese Military Mission -in Manchuria, the real power behind the 
government of Mnnchukuo and the organizer and supervisor of t he 
YJiite Russian dinigrants ’ Bureau® 

Kaiky*o-Kenkyu-sho• See Institute of Islamic Studies® 

28® Kalmyck National Committee^org® in Berlin, April 1943-, to work 
for "Kalmyck liberation from Bo 1 shevisn," 

29® Eeio University Foreign Language School in Tokyo, founded September 
19a2, the first school to organize c urses for women in the 
languages of Muslin peoples of Russia and the Ne'ar and Middle East 
thus implying the future utilization of women as espionage agents • 
in those countries® « 

Kokuryukai® See Black Dragon Society® 

Kckusai Bunka -Shinkokai. See Society for International Cultural 
Relations e 


Kokushi-kan Semmon Gakko® See Nationalists’ Training Academy. 

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~ 60 ~ 

30. Magyar Nipp on Socie ty (Magyar Nippon Tars asag) of Budapest, org. 

by the Japanese in Hungary to collaborate with the Nippon-Hungary 
Society of Tokyo, the Turan Society of Japan, and the Pan-Turan 
Society of Budapest to bring about the realization of the racial 
identity of the Turki peoples with Japan and establish Japan as 
a friend of the Turki peoples of Europe and Asia. 

Magyar Nippon Tars asag. doe Magyar Nippon Society of Budapest. 

31.. Manchurian Islam Association (Honshu Isuratf. Kyokai), org. by. 

Xyodo Kawamuinio (Black Dragon agent), in: IIsinking in July 1932 
and at present having 166 branches* 

Manshu Isuran Kyokai. See Manchurian Is lead Association. 

32. Ministry of Propaganda , German* sponsor of Iyad Ishaqi’s Muslin 

paper Yani Milli Yul in Berlin, published simultaneously with 
his Milli Bayrak in Mukden. 

33. Muslim Student ; League , org. in Japan in July 1943. 

34. Muslim Youth Corps , org. by Shinzo Takagaki in 1938 in Poking to 

train Chinese Muslim youths for special work for the Army. 

35. Nationalists’ Training School (Kokushi-kan Semmon Gakko) in Tokyo, 

Black Dragon Society" School for training agents, org, by Toyama 
and now headed by Giichi Fukushima. 

Nichi-Do Kyokai. See Japan Turkish Society. 

36. Nippon-Hungary Society of Tokyo (Tokyo Nippon Ilonoarii Kyokai or 
~La“S ociete Hongro-japonais q a T ukyo), org. in 1934- ter .-promote 

Japanese relationships with the, Pan-Turan Society and the Magyar 
Nippon Society in Budapest for the promotion of .feelings^ of racial 
kinship between Japan and' the. Turki peoples of Europe, and Asia. 

Nippon Teikoku Zairyu Kaikyoto■ Remjnei. See Ja-pon liesidents* Muslim 
League* 

37/. Nippon T r adin g Ass ociation * .a .screen - organization for Japanese 
espionage throughout India, Burma, Africa, and.Latin America, 
but has recently been active in; northern Afghanistan. ‘ Its 
couriers have been traveling in the guise of Muslim mullahs 
and Buddhist priests* 


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38. Northwestern Muslin Institute , org* by the Japanese in Peiping 
and now headed by Ma Eang-p*o• 

39* One-Culture Society (Bobunkui), merged with East Asia Society 

(Toa-kai) to form East Asia One-Culture Society (Toa Dobunkai)• 

4°. Oriental Soc iety (Toyo Kyokai), Osaka Bldg., Uchis&iwai-cho, 

.2-chone, Kojimucni-ku, Tokyo, org* in 1898 to conduct investigations 
and train able men .for private and public enterprise in various 
parts of Asia* It runs six trainin' schools, including the 
Colonial University* Its present directors are Hentaro Mizuno, 
Hiuejiro Bogota, and Atsushi Akaike* Its field has been primarily 
economic and industrial intelligence. 

Pan-Turan Society of Budapest. See Turan Society of Budapest* 

Rakuzendo* See u a ll ^f Pleasurable Delights* 

41* Reawakening of Asia Society (Ajiya Gikai), org• in 1009 by Tsunetaro 
Nakano. 

42* Reawakening of Greater Asia Society (Dai-A-Gikai), the reorganized 
. Reawakening of Asia Society* 

Russian Emigrants* Committee* See 'white Russian Emigrants* Bureau* 

43* School for Eastern Study (Toyo Gakkon), org* in 1884 in Shanghai by 
Kotarc- Hiraoka to train agents for the Black Ocean Society 
(Genyosha)* Recently reported located on Kunshan Road# 

44* Society for International Cultural Relations (Kokus r i Bunka Shin- 

kokai), org* in 193a as semi- fficial agency of the Foreign Office. 

45* Society of I slamic Culture (Islam Bunka Kyokai), org* by Teijiru 
Sakuma in Tokyo, 1915. 

46* Society of Light, org*-in Shanghai by Teijiro Sakuma in 1922, to 
spread Japanese propaganda tc the Muslins of the Near and the 
Middle East in the guise of a Chinese Islamic periodical* 

47. Society of the Lhite Rolf (Hakurokai), a terrorist gr up with 

Pan-Asiatic aims, org* by Lieut. Zei Nishida in Japan in 1924* 


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48* Suiyuan Muslim Youth Corps, an organization which is not attached 
to any otnsr Muslim organization in China but directly under the. 
Japanese army where Chinese Muslim youths are trained .for espionage 
In Muslim areas for Japan# 

49# Ta tarische Mittelstelle (Tatar Central League), org#. in Berlin, 

~Jun'e 1943, to unite nil the Jdel-.Ural (i # e • , Volga-Ural) Tatar groups 
desiring Tatar independence from Russia# 

Toa Dobun Shoin (Tung Wen Coll ego)» See East' A*, ia One-Culture School 

Toa Dobunkai# See East Asia One-Culture Society# 

Toa-kai# See East Asia Society# 

50# Tokyo Islamic u rder (Tokyo Kaikyo-dan), founded’ in 1924 by Muhammad 
Abdel-hai Qurbon Tli. 

Tokyo Kaikyo-dan# See Tokyo Islamic Order# 

Tokyo Nippon Hangarii Kyokai# See Nippon-Hung ary Society of Tokyo# 
Toyo Gakkan# See School for Eastern Study# 

* Toyo Kyokai# See Oriental Society# 

« w 

Tung Wen College (Toa Doben Shoin)# See East Asia One-Culture 
School# 

51# Turan Society, of Budap est (Turani Tarsasag of Budapest), org# in 
1916 to. promote the political union of the Turki peoples#’ 

52# Turan Society of Japan , org# in 1933 as Japanese branch of the 

Turan Society of Budapest, primarily for the purpose of promoting 
Japanese intrigue among the Muslim Turki refugees from Russia# 

53, Turko-Tatar Far Easter n Counc il, org# in 1934 in Manchuria under 
spoils hr ship of Jr.pan esc Military Mission. 

54# White Russia n Emigrants 1 Burea u, first organized in Harbin following 
Japanese occupation and thence spread to all parts of Japanese - 
occupied China where Russian refugees live for tho purpose of uni¬ 
fying and supervising the Russian refugees in the Far#East# 

White Wolf Society# See Society of the White Wolf, 

Zenrin Kyokai. See Good Neighbor Association# 

Zenrin Shoin. See Good Neighbor School# 


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API'ENLIX IX 
DHCPS I,nd 


This Vho’s V.ho includes the names of all persons mentioned in the 
text as well as those of -Others who have been in some way connected 
with Japanese Mulim policy* The list and the annotations are not 
exhaustive, and some names about which little is known have been in¬ 
cluded -to facilitate further inquiry* The permutations of Asiatic 
names are infinite* All variations and aliases encountered in this 
study have been cross-indexed but others undoubtedly are in use* 


A* JAPANESE NATIONALS 

Abdur Muliyamu* See Hosokawn, Susumu. 

1* Akashi, Motojiroj Earon and General, b* 1865-d«l9l9; enlisted the 
aid of the .Muslim and the Social Revolutionary groups in Russia 
to undermine the Russian rear and supply intelligence to the 
Japanese during the Russo-Japanese war; His most important 
Muslim contact, Abdur Rashid Ibrahim , was head of the Japanese 
Muslim Association until his death in September 

2# Akikusa: Colonel and now possibly Mrg or-Goneral; suspected to be 
head of Russian Section of Japanese Military Intelligence; 
about 40 years old; speaks flawless Russian; organizer of +he 
"Bureau of Affairs of Russian Immigrants" in occupied china and 
Manchuria* 

5* Ando* Japanese "student," graduate of the Muslim University of 
el-Ashar in Cairo; returned to Yokohama in 1942* 

4* Ando, Rinzo: Lieut* General, b*1886; Chief of Special Service- of 
the Kwantung Army in Harbin 1933-3G and a close friend of Col# 
Akikusa (see above); transferred to Tokyo to command the Tokyo 
Bay Fortified. Area- in 1937, reputedly because one of his Russian 
agents, Levintsoff, turned uut to be agent for the Far Eastern 
Red Army planted in his Special Service* 


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5# AGyanagi, Katsutoshi: b# 1879-d# 1934; cavalry officer and member 
of the Black Dragon Society; active in espionage and subversive 
activities all along the Russian border from Sinkiang through 
Mongolia to Manchuria; signer of the Muslim Oath of 1909 vrith 
Toyama, Ibrahim, and others# 

6# Araki, Sadao (baptized in Russian Orthodix Church as Sev~ r a 

Danilovich Araki)t Barbn and General, b. 1877; member of the 
Supreme War Council and holder of several cabinet posts 
previous to 1936; at present retired but an important influence 
behind former Premier Tojo; like Akashi (see above) close to 
Toyama and patriotic society circles and an activo proponent 
of both the Muslim and the Russian Orthodox policies# Akashi’s 
successor as military attach^ in Russia when 'Russo-Japanese 
relations were resumed after the Treaty of Portsmouth and 
organizer of the Japanese' espionage there utilizing dissident 
Muslim and revolutionary elements# 

7# Arao, Kiyoshi: organizer of the group of espionage agents into 
Russian Central Asia functioning as the Rakuzendo or the Hall 
of Pleasurable Delights# 

8# Ariga, Bunhachiro: one of the-first converts to Islam in 1896 

in Kobe for the purpose of "serving Japan with his*religion.” 

See A# KasamaJs "The Muslims," iwanami Bunko Series., 1939. 

9. Ashida, Hitoehi: b. 1887; prolific writer of. Japanese .propaganda 
literature for the Muslims; in the Japanese Constantiniple 
Bnbassy in 1925; editor -and president of Japan Times and Mail, 
Tokyo, since 1933; member of the Diet# 

10# Atakana: one of the young officers who, ostensibly as converts to 
Islam, have been making annual pilgrimages to mecca; in Mecca 
in 1935• See. Orionto Moderno , 1935# 

11# Cheng, Ch’ao-tsung# See Fukuda, Kikuo* 

, Endo, Ryusaku: b# 1886; member of the H use of Peers since 1936; 
previously held posts in Korea end Manchuria; one of the direc¬ 
tors of the Society of Islamic Culture in Tokyo} active in 
entertaining Muslim dignitaries.and visitors in Japan# 

12# Enomoto, Momotaro* one of the Japanese officers, who, to serve 

• their country, accepted Islam and. have made pilgrimages to Mecca 
in Mecca December 1936 - April 1937; since then reported to be 
head of the Japanese intelligence in the Balkans-Levant Region# 


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13. Fujishima, Takehiko: one of the earliest organizers of Japanese 

infiltration into the Muslim areas of Russian, Central Asia and • 

/ member of Kiyoshi Arao’s Rakuzendo; caught while traveling in 
v the guise of a Buddhist priest and beheaded by the Chinese in 
1895. 

14. Fukamachi, Masaoj Hajime Kobayashi’s associate in a Latin American-* 

intrigue in 1941* 

15. Fukii, Fuminaga; Hajime Kobayashi’s companion in Latin America in 

1941. 

16. Fukuda, Kikuo (Chinese pseudonym; Cheng. Ch’ao-tsung) j Black- 

Dragon agent in Honan. China, since 1905; present whereabouts 
unknown. 

17. Fukushima, Giichij head of the Nationalists’ Training School 

(Kokushi-kan Semruon Gakko) in Tokyo run by the Black Dragon 
Society. 

* « 

18. Fukushima, Yasumasas Colonel and later General, b. 1852-d.l9l9; 

earliest army investigator of the Muslim areas of Russia which 
he'studied, making contacts and maps, while traveling alone on 
horseback 1883-97. 

19. Furushima, Kazuos one of the organizers of the Japan Residents’ 

Muslim League (Nippon Teikoku Zairyu Kaikyoto Remmei) in 1928. 

Haji Noor Muhammad. See Tanaka, Ippei (Yasuhira). 

20. Eakoda, Rokusuke: organizer, vdth Toyama, and first president of 

the Black Ocean Society, 

21. Hashiguchi, Komur: chief training officer of the Muslim Youth 

Corps in Peking, organized 1938, which trains Muslim youths for 
special work for the army ( Hui - chia , 1938, 1.3-, n. 51). 

Hass an Murshid Effondi* See Hatano, Hass an, 

22. Hatano, Mrs. Fatima; daughter of Baron Hiki who with her husband 

became a convert to Islam, 2 December 1911, 

23. Hatano., Hassan Murshid effendi: one of the earliest Japanese propa¬ 

gandists to send articles to the Muslim press in Russia and India; 
ostensibly a convert to Islam; a member of the Black Dragon Society 


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24. Hattori, Fuzo: used to illustrate the life history of a Japanese 
spy. 

25-. Hayashi, Senjuro: General, b.l876-d*1943; at various times war 
minister and prime minister; ardent promoter of the Japanese 
Muslim Policy and president, before his death* of the Greater 
Japan Muslim League and the Good Neighbor Association'. 

26. Hiki; Baron: converted to Islam with daughter and son-in-law* 

Mr. and Mrs. Hatano, 2 December 1911, with much fanfare to . 
advertise the spread of Islam among the upper classes in Japan; 
announcements and pictures of conversion sent to Islamic press 
throughout the world. *- 

27. Hino, Tsuyomi: Major, d. 1920 in Tsingtao; espionage age.pt in 

China, India, and Russian Central Ar-ia where he accompanied 
T. Uehara in 1906-07. , 

28. Hiraoka, Kotaroi second president of the Black Ocean Society and 

uncle of Ryohei Uchida; organizer of the Black Dragon Society. 

29. Hirayama, • Chikashi: one' of the initial organizers of both tho 

East Asia One-Culture Society and the black Dragon Society, 

30. Hosokawa, Susumu (Muslim pseudonym: Abdur Muliyamu): one of the 

Japanese officers and ostensible converts to Is lam'who made 
trips to Mecca throughout the thirties and made contacts with 
Bokharans and natives of Sinkiang. 

31. Ichijo, Sdnetaka: director of the Good,Neighbor Association • 

(Zenrin Kyokai); member of the House of Peers. 

32. Ichincmiya, Fusajiro: director of the East Apia One-Culture Society 

(Toa Dobunkai), head of its espionage school (Tea Dobun Shoin) in 
Shanghai. 

53. Ikeda, Seihin: financier, head 9f the Bank of Japan and one of the 
four directors of the Good Neighbor Association which supports 
work in Mongolia and Central Asia. : 

34. Imaoka, Juichiro: writer f propaganda to the Muslims. 

35. Inouye, Masaji: b.1876; Managing Director of the South Sea Associa- -* 

tion, the Japan-Turkish Society, and the jifghcnistan Club; Black 
* ‘ Dragon member and powerful backer of- espionage and infiltration 

into Russian Central Asia, particularly the cotton area; owner of 
cotton plantations in Peru and spinning mills in Japan; studied in 
Berlin and Vienna and was Black Dragon agent on the Russian Afghan 
frontier in nis youth; powerful influence in. financial and patriotic 
society circles; ardent believer in Japanese imperialism, 


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- 67 - 


36. Inukai, Ki or’Tsuyoki: Diet member, party leader, Premier 1931-32, 

and an influential secret society man; organizer of.Tea Dobunkaij • 
active in the Muslim field until his assassine.tion in 1932. 

37• Ishiyama, special correspondent to Afghanistan, April 1941* 

38* Isogai, Rensuket Lieut# General, b. 1883; since December 1942, Governor 
General of Hong Kong; strong supporter of Japanese Muslim Policy# 

39* Itagaki, Sepshiro: General, b* 1885; War Minister May 1938-3 e ptember 
1939; one of the original founders of the Black Dragon-Society# 

40. Iwasaki, Shintaroj attach* to Japanese Legation in K^bul since 
10 July,1939 , the only Japanese diplomat to have been there 
as long; active in intrigue with anti-British and (previous to 
1941) onti-Soviet elements# 

41# Kaji, Choichii one of the original organizers of both the Toa 
Dobunkai and the Black Dragon Society# 

42# Kamei, Yoshitsugu, commercial attach*, Japanese:Embassy in Ankara 
(as of July 1942)# 

43# Kameyama, Rokuzo-j attach* to the Japanese Legation in. Kabul, as of 
January 1943# 

44# Kasama, Akio: b# 1887; outstanding Japanese propagandist and intriguer 
in the field of Islam; held diplomatic post's in T.uckey and 
Iran; at present army administrator of an unspecified occupied 
area; knows Turkish and Arabic# 

45# Katsube, T#, Charge d’affaires of Japanese legation in Kabul until 
the arrival of the new Japanese minister Shichida in October 
1942; tried to orient Japanese propaganda to Muslim themes 
and away from the Hindu tinge; wife (British) and two children 
with him in Kabul# 

46. Kawahara, Kaku: Second Secretary,'Japanese Legation, Kabul, since 
1939# 

47# Kawamura, Kyodoj Black Dragon agent in China, Manchuria, and 
Central Asia since 1909; organizer of the Manchuria Islamic 
Association in Hsinking, 1932# " *' 

48# Kawara, Tsunejiro: member of Fiyoshi Arao’s Rakuzendo in Hankow 
who was investigating Russian railway building in Central Asia* 


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- .68 - 


49* Kawarada, Yoshi: according to Yang Ch.in-chih, Chinese Muslim 
authority, in an article in Ta Kung Roo, Chungking, 9 March 
1942, Kawarada was also one of the signers of the Muslim 'doth 
in 1909; Toa Senkaku does not name him; evidently a Alack 
Dragon agent specializing on Muslims who is still alive and 
operating since not included in Toa Senkaku Shishi Kid on , 1936 ed 

50# Kinoshita, Toke.o: First Secretary, Japanese Embassy in Ankara, as 
of July 1942# 

51# Kitamikado, Matsusaburo: one of the members of Kiyoshi Arao T s 
Rakuzendo conducing espionage in Russian Central Asia and 
Sinkiang# 

52. Kobayashi, Genjij Japanese engineer in Kabul; worked on Boghra 
C R nalj still in Afghanistan in August 1943# 

53# Kobayashi, Iiajimej outstanding Japanese propagandist, professor, 
and editor of Kaikyo-ken (Islamic World) in Tokyo# 

54# Kobayashi, Kikuo: Japanese minister to Kabul in 1942; died in 
the fall of 1942# 

55# Kobayashi, Motomoj contributor of articles on Muslim questions 
to Rfkishi-Gaku Kenkyu (Historical Research)# 

56. Koide, Sadao: assistant to Shinzo Takagaki, Black Dragon agent- 

and army organizer of the Chinese-Muslim Corps in Peking, 1938# 

57# Koide, Takeos executive secretary of the Japan-Turlcish Society 
(Nichi-Do Kyokai) as of 1939.# 

58# Koizumi, Kotai; Black Dragon agent specializing in Russian 

Muslims; after several years 1 residence with Qurban Ati in 
Tokyo, ostensibly become a convert to Islam, went to Mecca, 
and thence to Russian Central Asia; last sent word to Black 
Dragon Society on reaching Lnnchow; subsequent activity not 
mentioned by Toa Senkaku# 

59# Komai, Kinjiro: reputed to be one of Toyama’s .chief undercover 
men; sent to. Peking to combat Soviet diplomat Jaffe in 1922# 

60# Kono, Hironaka, b# 1849-d#1923; one of tile signers of the2Muslim 
Oath of 1909. . • 


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61# Konoe, Fumitaka; sono of Prince Aytnarc Konoe and one of the 

directors of the East Asia One-Culture Society (Toa Dobunkai) 
and its espionage school in Shanghai; formerly student at 
Princeton University* 

62# Kori, Sozo (alias Muhammad Abduralis): one of the officers who, 
ostensibly as converts to Islam# made pilgrimages to Mecca in 
1935, 1936, and 1937. 

63# Kurihara, She: b# 1390; Ambassador to Turkey as of July 1942# 

64# Kurosawa, Jiroi first secretary of the Japanese Legation in 
Roumania and before then in Turkey (1934). 

65# Kusuyoma, Matasuke; Lieut# General, d#22.June 1944; director of 
the Zenrin Kyokai and Zenrin Shoin (Good Neighbor Association 
and its espionage school)# 

66# Kuzuu, Yoshihisa; present head of Black Dragon Society who 

, succeeded Ryohei Uchida in 1935; professional patriotic sooiety 
man# 

- Ma ChJeng-lung. See Nami, Kidenari# 

67, Ma Hang-p’oj either Chinese'or Japanese; head of Japanese 
Northwest Muslim Institute in China# 

68# Machida, Joji; Research Department of the Foreign Office; 
previously attached to Japanese Embassy in Ankara. 

69. Makita, Takeshi: General Secretary of East Asia One-Culture Society 
and one of the directors of its espionage school in Shanghai# 

70# Masuko, Isamu (Takeshi); one of the officers who became converted 
to the idea of using Islam to achieve the Pan-Asiatic union; 
entered el-Azhar University in Cairo to study but died in 
1932 in Teheran after some disturbance# 

71# Matsubara, Akio; Capt#, Japanese naval attachd in Ankara, as 
of July 1942# 

72# Matsubara, Shobu: Japanese engineer in Kabul as of July 1943. 

73# Matsuda, Hisao; one of the officials of the Institute of 
Islamic Studies find writer on Muslim questions# 


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■ 'CONFIDENTIAL 


7F4. 

75. 

76. 

77. 

78. 

79. 

80. 

81. 

82. 

83. 


- 70- 


Matsui, Iwane, Generals noted in recent .history primarily for 

having led the rape of Nanking in 1957; director of Afghanistan 
Club and organizer of the Great Asia Association (Dai-A,jiya 
Kyokai); active proponent of the Japanese Muslim Polioy. 

Matsuoka, Yosuke: b. 1880; director of South Manchuria 

Railway 1936-39; like Yamamoto and Hayashi, former directors 
-of the railway, very active in promoting Muslim cause; 
gave money for the building of ra esques in Mukden and Dairen; 
one-time Foreign Minister; negotiator. Russo-Japanese neutrality 
pact; educated in U S* 

Mitani, Toruj adviser to North China Branch of China Union 
Mohammaden Association. 

Miyagi, Ryozo j writer oh Muslim questions; frequently trans¬ 
lates from the Russian. 

Miyazaki, Torazo* one of original organizers of the East 

Asia One-Culture Society (loa Dobunkai); friend and associate 
of Sun Yat-sen. 

Moriya, D’araj minister to Afghanistan from February 1938-April 
1.942, preceding Kikuo Kob’ayashi' and succeeding Masamoto Kitada. 

Muhammad Abdur Muliyamu (alias . Abdur Muliaynmu)• See Hosokawa, 
Susumu. 

Muhammad Abduralis.' See .Kori, Sozo* 

Munakata, Kotaro: member of Kiyoshi Arao f s Rakuzendo in Hankow* - 

Murata, Shozoj ,b. 1872; big industrialist with shipping and 
cotton interests; ardent sponsor of Japanese espionage and 
penetration into the cotton areas of Soviet Central Asia; 
general secretary of the Society of Islamic Culture and; vice- 
president of the Greater Japan Muslim League; since December 
1942 supreme adviser to Japanese'Military Administration in 
the Philippines. ' 

Nabeshima, Naoknzui Viscount; president of the Nippon-Hungary Society 
of Tokyo as of 1939. 

Naito, Chishu: outstanding Japanese authority on Russia, Turkey, 
Central Asia, and the Muslim questions; knows Turkish and 
Russian; Director of Institute of Islamic Studies; toured Muslim 
countries on good will tours arranged by the Foreign Office. 


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- 71 - 

84# Nakamura, Yoj officer of the Society of In Ionic Culture and 

simultaneously Chief of the investigation department of the ' 
Kanegafuclii Spinning Company; like Shozo Murata, interest el 
in espionage in c >tton areas of Soviet Central Asia# 

85# Nakano, Jiro: d# 1921; member of Kiyoshi Arao^s kakuzondo, of 
Ryohei Uchida*s Jujitsu School in Vladivostok; organizer 
of a school to train spied for Russian territory in Sapporo, 

Japan# 

86# .Nakano, Tsunetaro: organizer of the Reawakening of Greater Asia 
Society (Dai-A-Gikai); one of the sirners of the Muslin Oath 
of 1909. . . 

87# Nakao, Hideo: in July 1942 was listed as secretary to She Kurihrra, 
Japanese Ambassador to Turkey; great authority on Islam; knows 
Turkish well; member of many Japanese delegations to the Near 
East and close companion of. the group of officers who, 
ostensibly‘as converts to Islam, made annual trips to Mecca# 

See Wakubaysshi, lie hemmed eh world and. Japan, Tokyo, 1938# 

88# Nakayema, Shoichij' Japanese minister to Iran after 1936; previously 
served in Russia; preceded Akio Kasana in Teheran in organiza¬ 
tion of espionage in Soviet Muslim areas# 

89# Nakayema, Yasuzos Black Dragon member and one of the signers of 
the Muslim Oath of 1909# 

90# Nami, Hidenari (alias Ma Cli’eng-lung):' Black Dragon agent in 
China, Sinkiang, an! Russian Central Asia; speaks excellent 
Chinese end usually poses as Chinese on his travels; whars 
Chinese clathes• 

91. Nishida, Zeis organizer of the 'Society of the bhite wolf (Hakurokai) 
in 1924 and later of several other Pan-Asiatic terrorist groups# 

92# Nobara, Shiro: Japanese historian and frequent contributor to 
the magazine Kaikyo- dan (Muslim or Islamic Fraternity) of 
articles on Sinkiang and Soviet Muslims# 

93# Obata, Torikichit director of Afghanistan Club in Tokyo; in 
Turkey in the twenties; Ambassador in 1925# 

94* Ogasawara, Chose!: referred to by Japonese,Advertiser, 13 May 1938, 
as representative of Japanese Muslims at the Tokyo Mosque 
dedication# 

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-72- 


95. Ohara, Abu bekr (ali'as Juje Char a, Abu Bekr.Akhond•Jan In on, and 

Jan Ju-en): Japanese convert to Islam'. Sec La Temps (Cairo), 

17 April 1935. * 

96. Ohara, Bukeijij b. 1865-d, 1933 in Tsingtao; one of the signers 

of the Muslim Oath of 1909 and head of the East A§£a O n e-Culture 
Society work in Shanghai where the espionage school (Toa pobun 
Shoin) was run. 

97. Okg.be, Nagakages Viscount; chairman of the Board of Directors of 

East Asia One~Culturo Society; C n binot member, 1943. 

98. Okubo, Koji: head of Institute of Islamic Culture; exchange 

professor and lecturer in Turkey in 1936; professor Pf Islamic 
Studies in .V/aseda University; knows Turkish well; noted for 
his propagandists writings to the Muslims on behalf pf Japan. 

99. Oya, Hanichiro; d,1897; one of the earlier members of the Rakuzendo 

and pioneer in Muslim infiltration into Russian Central Asia. 

100. Saito, Sekihei: in Kabul with wife and child as attachd to 

Japanese Legation in 1937. 

101. Sakai, Takashi: Lieut. General, b. 1887; reported to be the 

originator of the Japanese plan for the creation of an autono¬ 
mous Muslim state in Central Asia to be made .up of Sinkiang; and 
Soviet Central Asia; made director x>f Inner Mongolia.Liaison 
Agency of the China Affairs "Board in 1838. 

102. Sakamoto, Miss Harue* arrived in Afghanistan with the four 

Japanese engineers and has been with them in Kandahar;. Still 
there in January 1943. 

103. Sakamoto., Kenichi: translated Koran into-Japanese from Rodwell T s 

English version; his Japanese translation use : d for. the 
Chinese translation in 1927. 

104. Sakuma, Teijiro (alias Tso Tung-shan): notorious Japanese Muslim 

worker; used Chinese pseudonym when in China or working there 
•as a base for activities directed elsewhere; has lived with the 
Kazaks and the Tatars in Central.Asia .and speaks their languages; 
has worked in practically every Muslim country of continental Asia. 

105. Sama, Ahmeds ostensibly a Japanese convert to Islam who lives with 

the Muslim students in Japan and is active in Muslim propaganda. 


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- 73 - 

106« San, Muhammad Alis Japanese-Muslim "convert" in Kobe; active 
around the Xobe mosque and in accompanying Muslin students 
and visitors in Japan.. 

107. Sasa, Tanetsugu: one of the present directors of the Society of 

Islamic Culture in Tokyo. 

108. Sato* Kajime: Black Dragon agent who went to Russian Central 

Asia in 1917 as ’’resident" agent for several years; present 
whereabouts ; unknown, 

109. Segawa, Hisashi:^ contributor of propagandists articles to D$i 

Agia (Great A ia). 

110. Seshita, Kiyoshi: Jap an es e Ad^e r t is e r , 15 May 1958, lists him 

as one of the patrons.of Islam active in the Tokyo Mosque 
dedication. „ . 

. Shaliyisin, Muhammad. See Suzuki Tsuyomi. 

111. Shibuya, Tatsuo: Japanese engineer in Kabul, July 1943. 

112. Shichida* Libtoharuj Japanese minister in Kabul since 21 October 

1942;.traveled to Kabul via Russia with two secretaries; 
previously held posts in Harbin and Vladivostok. 

113. Shinagawa, Kisaburos d. 1907; one of the earliest Japanese agents 

in Russia and Mongolia; usually traveled as a newsoapennan. 

114. Shimobayashi, ntsuyuki: Japanese writer of propaganda literature 

to the Muslims. 

115. Shindc, Kiheitai: one of the original organizers *.of the Black 

Ocean Society with Tuyama. 

116. Shindo, Shintaros b. 1883; close associate of Toyama in recent years 

and a powerful influence behind Japanese aggressicn^ especially 
if directed at Russia; president cf the Russo-Japanese Fisheries 
Co., Kyokuho Petroleum Co., and Hokkaido Rubber Co';, as well as . 
of a number of other erheerns; big industrialist; gave dinner 
for Toyama in 1935 to celebrate the latter’s fiftieth anniver¬ 
sary of association with Sugiyama. 

117. Shioten, Nobutakas Lieut. General; president of the Japan 

Residents’ Muslim League and s.uceessor to General Hayashi 
as foremost exponent of the Japanese Muslim policy among 
higher army, hierarchy. 


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- 74 - 

118# Soejima, Jiro: Black Dragon agent who "investigated" Soviet 
Kirghizia in 1925; present whereabouts unknown# 

119. Suda, Masatsugu* author of numerous articles on the Muslim 
question in Dai Asia Magazine # 

120# Sugiyama, Shigemaru* financial backer of the Black Ocean 
Society since its organization and a close associate of 
Toyama# 

Sung, Ssu-chai# See Ura Keiichi# 

121# Suzuki, Tsuyomi (alias Muhammad Shaliyisin): one of the officers 
who, ostensibly as converts to Islam, made trips to Mecca; 
trips financed by the Kwantung Army, the South Manchurian 
Railway, end Mitsubishi -Shoji Kaisha; contacted-Muslims from 
Bokhara and Sinkiang; now attached to the Greater Japan 
Muslim League# 

122# Tachibana, Zuichoj intelligence agent in Sinkiang, Afghanistan, 
Northern India and Western Siberia 1908-12; only eighteen 
when he started; guise that of a Buddhist priest; present 
whereabouts unknown but was trained for work in Central Asia.#- 

123# Tada, Hiroshi; Japanese engineer in Kabul as of July 1943; .has 
been working on the Boghra Canal with Tatsuo Shibuya# 

124# Takagaki, Shinzo or Abdullah: at one time adviser to the Afghan 
Government and a Black Dragon agent around the Russian 
frontiers in Asia; at present trains -Chinese Muslim youths 
as espionage agents for the Japanese army in Pek5.ng. ' 

125# Takahashi, Kens member of Rakuzendo; traveled in Central Asia 
as medicine salesman# 

126. Taketomi, Toshihikos b. 1884; preceded Slio Kurihara as Ambassador 

to Turkey; appointed August 1937# 

127. Tanabe, Yasunosuket Black Dragon member who went to Afghanistan 

in 1925 to set up a system of communications with the Turkmen 
organizations in Soviet Central Asia; at present director of’ 
the Afghanistan Club in Japan and the prime mover of Japanese 
anti-Soviet Intrigue* based in Afghanistan# 

128# Tanaka, Bunichiro; consul-general in Aloxandrovsk, USSR, since 
1936 and authority on Russian frontier conditions, having 
graduated from the Tokyo School of Foreign Languages with 
a Russian major and having subsequently held positions in 
Vladivostok, Harbin, Odessa, Manchuli, and Petropavlovsk#‘ 


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- 75 ~ 

129« Tanaka, Ippei or Yasuhira (alias Haji Noor Muhammad) i b,. 1882- 
d# 1934; one of the forenost promoters of the Japanese Muslim 
policy and active worker in the field who trained a number 
of younger men to follow in his footsteps as converts'to 
Islam, 

130. Tateishi, Horyos Colonel; Military Attachb in Ankara as of 

July 1942. 

131. Togo, Shigenori: b, 1882; director of Afghanistan Club and 

former ambassador to Russia; before that in Berlin, 

132. Togo, Tsushima: Japanese Muslim "worker” who worked himself 

into the position of secret: ry and treasurer of the Woking 
Muslim'Missionary Society in London; in the guise of this . 
position, he developed a large number of contacts araong 
Muslims of the world and was able to send propaganda to.all 
the Muslim periodicals; present whereabouts unknown but was 
probably repatriated following outbreak of war with Japan, 

133. Tokoncmi, Takejiroj organizer with Toyama of Japan Residents' 

Muslim League, 

134. Tokugawa, Iyemasa: ex-Ambassador to Turkey and- president of the 

Japan-Turkish Society, 

135. Toyama, Mitsurui b, 26 June. 1855-d, October 1944; since 1879 the 

most powerful patriotic society figure in Japan; founder of the 
Black Ocean Society and the real force behind the Black Dragon 
Society,, 

Tso Tung-shan. See Sakuma, Teijiro, 

136. Tsuda, Shizue: one of' the East Asia One-Culture Society (Toa 

Dobuhkai) directors as of 1939-40, , 

137. Tsunejiro, Toragoro: referred to as one of the two arms of 

Toyama (the other being Sugiyama) at ; a celebration ‘in honor 
of the fiftieth • anniversary of Toyama's acquaintance with 
Sugiyama in 1935; celebration, arranged by 7hindo (Shintaro) 
and Uchida, 

138. Tsurumi, Sakio: managing director of the Japan-Turkish Society 

together with Masaji Inoue; industrialist, big oil and cotton 
man, and backer of Japanese infiltration into the cotton and 
oil Muslim areas of Russia. 

139. Tsuruoka, Sen jin; third secretary of the Embassy in Ankara as 

of July 1942# 


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• 

140. Uchida, Ryohei: d, 1938j founder of the Black Dragon Society 

and one of the most remarkable minds in the field of sub¬ 
version and intelligence; .-personally responsible for sabotage 
of Russian railways and fortifications, several uprisings in 
Russia, China, Korea, end Manchuria, .and numberless 'other 
things; next to Toyama, the v most powerful patriotic society man 
in Japan. 

141. Uchida, Sadatsuchi* b. 1865; Ambassador to Turkey in 1920; patriotic 

society connections and background; President of the Japan- 
Turkish Society 1934-35. 

142. Ueda, Sentaro: b. 1868; capable intelligence agent with Black 

Dragon connections; graduate of St. .Petersburg'Imperial Univer-• 
sity Law School and usually operating as "student interpreter"/ 
has had .a great deal of experience in Russia, both Tsarist 
and Soviet; associated with Akashi at one time;., in Teheran 
1932-37’ and since then on special staff of Foreign Office, 
although officially retired. 

143. Uehara, Aisan: b. 1907-d. 1936; one of the younger officers 

who become "converts" t ■ Islam and began making trips to 
Mecca under Ippei Tanaka*s guidance; like Isamu Masuko, 
he died while on the trip under mysterious circumstances, 
one version (Toa Sehkaku) stating that he comraited suicidu 
following i d eri t i f i c at i on as a non-Muslim fey the authorities 
and refusal to admit him. to Mecca* 

144. Uehara, Taichi (Yuan Shang-chih): b. 1883-d. 1916;- Black- Dragon 

and simultaneously army spy in Russian Central Asia (Tashkent). 

145. Ura, Keiichi (Sung Ssu-chr.i):* member of the P.okuzcndo; as a 

very young man in April 1890 he set out for Russian Central 
A§ia posing as a Chinese; if alive, should be in late sixties 
or seventies; last reported in Burma*. 

146. Wakabayashi, Kyumanj b. 1891-d. 1923; brother of Nakabe’ 

Wakabayashi and worker for the Japanese Muslim policy in 
China; left many disciples including his brother' Nakabe. 

147. Wakabayashi, Nakabe: brother of Kyuman; author of. Mohammed an 

World and Japan; trusted aid of Toyama in the"Muslim 
infiIt ration; has made many trips to Muslim countries and 
has been active in recruiting personnel rmong the younger 
officers. 

148. Waro, Moriya: Japanese- Minister to Afghanistan in 1939. 

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COKFIDENTIAL 


\ 


149. 

Washio, Yoshinao: 

Inukai 1 s 

biographer. 


150, 

Y/atonabe, Dr. Ko: 

surgeon 

in Japanese Legation in Kabul; 

i 


wife and child with him in Kabul; ho arrived there in November 
1938 and was there as of July' 1943, 


151* Tniatanabe, Mizutaro (Michitaro): industrialist and-one of the 
managing directors of the Nippon-Hungary Association or 
Tokyo Nippon Hangarii Kyokai which stresses Pan-Turanism; 
also a director o’f the Imperial Rule Assistance Association# 

152# hatanabe, S •: attach^ in Japanese Legation in Kabul as of 
July 1943. 

153. Yamada, Kinosuke: b. 1859-d-# 1913; -one of the signers of the 

Muslim Pact of 1909. 

154. Yamama, Muhammad Ahmad: a young Japanese ostensibly converted 

to Islam by an Egyptian journalist, Badran Zeidar in Kabul; 
studied at al-Azhar University in 1935. 

155. Yamamoto, Taro: one of the group of young officers- ostensibly 

converted to Islam; following a .trip to Mecca in 1933 with 
Ippei Tanaka, stayed in Afghanistan until 1941, ostensibly 
"studying Muslim conditions." 

156. Yamamoto, Tatsuro: student of "Muslim conditions" in .East Asia 

and frequent contributor -of articles on the subject to 
historical periodicals# 

157. Yamanouchi, Iwao: member of Arao’s Rakuzendo. 

158. Yamaoka, Kotaroj the first Japanese to’ reach Mecca; Investigated 

the Muslim areas of the Near East and the Caucasus from 
1898 to 1910; then accompanied Ibrahim to Russia but was 
apprehended by Russian military police and barely escaped; 
in 1932 he was active in the Society of Light with Teijiro 
S a kuma in Shanghai. 

159. Yoshida, Eizoj Japanese student in Kabul, 22 January 1943. 

160. Yoshida, Masaharu: d. 1921: one of the earliest proponents of the 

Japanese Muslim policy/ sent to Russia and the Near East on 
a good will tour by Foreign Minister Inoue in 1880. 


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CONFIDENTIAL 


B# RUSSIAN AND SOVIET NATIONALS 


161# Abdul, Haqi a "man in a foreign country across the border from 
Soviet Turkestan plotting with an imperialist power having 
designs on Soviet territory” was named defendant in absentia 
and identified as refugee from the Soviet Union and former 
follower of Enver Pasha during the Muslim treason trials 
in Kokhand, October - Ncatrember 1935# 

Abdul Haziz Maxum# See M&xumov,"Abdul Haziz. 

Abdul Karim Bochia# See Bochia, Muhammad Abdul Karim# 

162# Abdul Majid or Majidovj pro-German businessman in Kabul; very 
influential# 

Abuul Muttalib Satybaldyev# See S&tybaldyev, Abdul Muttalib# 

Abdur Rahim# S ee Rahim, Mullah M» 

Abdur Rahman effendi Kerimi# See Bochia, Muhammad Abdul Karim# 

Abdur Rashid Ibrahim# See Ibrahim, Abdur Rashid.# 

163# Akchura, Yusuf-bey Oghlu (in Russian, Usuf Akchurin; in'German, Yussuf 
attschura Oglu; in.Central Europe, Youssouf, Oglu, Aktchoura): • 
member of the Administrative Council of the Turko-Tatars in 
the Far East in 1941 and descendant of a very wealthy Kazan 
Tatar family who owned large woolen mills in Tsarist Russia; 
great authority on Pan-Turanism, • y, \ ' 

Akchurin, Yusuf-bey or Usuf* See Akchura, Yusuf-bey Oghl’u# 

Aliev, Gurban# See Qurban Ali# 

Aliev, Sultan# See Galiev, Sultan# 

164# Ata mali bek; active in the Grey Wolf Society (Bozkurt) and the 
loader of the. Azerbaijan National Committee organized' 
in Berlin to work for Azerbaijan independence from the Soviet 
Union# 

Attschura, Yussuf# Oglu: See Akchura, Yusuf-bey# 

Ayas Ishaqi# See Ishaqi, Iyad# 


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- 79 - 


165# Azef; notorious agent-provocateur of the Russian Social Revolu¬ 
tionary Party who had dealings with Akashi while the latter 
was enlisting Ibrahim T s help in Russia for the Russo-Japanese 
war, . . * 

166* Balinov, Schaiuba: chairman of the Kalmyck National Committee in 
Berlin* 

167. Barudy, Galimjan, Mufti; d. 1920; organized Yvhite Russian 

regiments in Siberia with Japanese help 1918-20. 

168. Bochia, Abdul-Karim, or Muhammad Abdul'Karims head of the Muslim 

refugees from Soviet Russia in Kobe previous to his death in 
1935; active in collecting money for the building of the 
Kobe mosque* 

Bogia* See Bcchia, Abdul-Karim* 

169* Buldra, Frantiseka employed by the German Minister Pilger in 
Kabul for anti-Soviet espionage; died recently* 

170* Fahrudinov; director of the Central Muslim League in USSR; . 

arrested and tried for heading Japanese espionage at the 
trial held in Eravna, Buriat-Mongolia, April 1939; in Tsarist 
Russia was associate of Akchura and Ishaqi in Muslim activities* 

Galiev, Gurban* See Qurban Ali (Kurbangaliev)« 

171* Galiev, .Sultan: headed a movement for Muslim autonomy in 

Soviet Central Asia under the guise of party activities; 
native of Tashkent; tried for treason in connection with 
^autonomous movement supported by a foreign power” and 
executed in Tashkent, 1930; separatist movement of Central* 
Asiatic Muslims -has boon named "Sultangalievschina” after 
him* .. 

« 

172* Gapon, Father: -notorious agent-provodateur; had relations with 
Akashi* 

173. Gasin, U*: represented Kailar Muslims at the Second F&r-E a stern 

Congress of Turko-Tatars sponsored by the Japanese and held 
in Mukden, August 1941* 

174. Gasprinsky, Ismail: editor of the Tatar newspaper Tardjuman 

in the Crimea which was approached by the Japanese-to send 
a representative to Japan* 


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175. Ghulam Muhammadj Kokhand Muslim who escaped from Soviet 

territory around 1938 and is now active in anti-Soviet plots. 

176. Hadjet-Lache (alias Em. Es., alias Muhammad-Beg Hadji Lache- 

Skagauche, alias Mr. X, alias M. Taturine, alias. M. Muslim, 
alias M-S, alias M. Aishin): Okhran.a agent who investigated 
Pan-Islamic underground activities in Russian Muslim areas 
in 1907; later agont-provocateur and participant in the 
notorious ’’Stockholm Murders” of pro-Soviet Russians in Sweden 
has worked as secret agent for many governments including 
Turkey; fluent writer, a talented but pathological character; 
present whereabouts unknown. 

177. Hasbiulin, Mullah Muhammad: represented the Harbin Turko-Tatars 

at the Second Far Eastern Turko-Tatar Congress, in Mukden, 
August 1941. 

178. Hasukoff: described by Teijirc. Sakuma as leading spirit in the 

Idel-Ural Turko-Tatar Culture Association of Manchuria in 
1938; possibly the same man as Saccaf, Sheikh Muhammad, 
who represented Japanese interests in Hedjaz in 1935 and was 
referred to as a Tatar Muslim from Manchuria. 

179. Hilal Mudji (Mudzi): leader with Ata mali bek of the„Azerbaijan 

National Committee in Berlin and "Voice of Azerbaijan" to 
Russia on Berlin broadcasts. : 

. • s 

180. Ibrahim, Abdur Rashid (alias A. Ibrahimov in Russian, 

Ibrahim Shimi-tlo in Japanese, I-pu-la-hsing in Chinese); 
d. September 1944, noted Muslim Propagandist and formerly 
espionage agent, resided in Japan. 

Ibrahimov, A. or R. See Ibrahim, Abdur Rashid. 

I-pu-la-hsing. See Ibrahim, Abdur Rashid. 

Ishaki or Isliakov, AyP* 5 * See Ishaqi,-Iyad, below.- 

181. Ishaqi, Iyad or Ayas and in Russian Ishakov: leader of .the 

Tatar independence movement from the Soviet Onion in Europe 
and the Far East. 

182. Kalmykov, Capt.j a brigand posing as an.ti-Bolshevik leader with 

Japanese support. 


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-81 - 

Kerimi, Abdur Rahman effendi. See Bochia, Muhammad Abdul-Karim.. 

183. Klimovich./ Lucian: Muslim scholar in the Soviet Union and 

author of numerous works on the Muslims of Russia. 

184. Kolchak/ Alexander, Admiral: white Russian‘leader in Siberia 

whose prestige the Japanese worked to undermine by supporting 
Qurban Ali, Kalmykov, Semenov, etc. 

Kurbangali or Kurbangaliev. See 'Qurban Ali. 

185. Kursh Irmat or Kurshimat: aide to late Enver Pasha and narruid 

as defendant in absentia at the Muslin treason trials in 
Kokhand, October-November 1935, for organizing espionage on 
behalf of an "imperialist power" across the border ffora 
Soviet Turkestan. 

Majidov. See Abdul Majid. 

186. Maxumov, Abdul 'Aziz or Abdul Haziz Maxumfr named espionage agent 

of a foreign imperialist power in Kokhand in November 1935 
but fled abroad before being apprehended;' an associate of 
Kursh Irmat. 

187. Mir Yakub: refugee from Azerbaijan and an associate of lyad 

Ishaqi who called on Polish President Sikorski with Ishaqi 
in London 1941. 

188. Mubashir Khan*: Uzbek refugee from the Soviet Union in Kabul 

involved in anti-Soviet plots. 

Muhammad Abdul Hai Qurban Ali. See Qurban Ali. 

Muhammad Abdul Karim Bochia* See Bochia, Muhammad Abdul-Karim. 

189. Qari, Sadullah: Uzbek refugee from Tashkent in Kabul, very 

anti-Soviet and pro-Axis. 

190. Qurban Ali, Muhammad Abdul Hai (alias Kurban Aliev, Kurbangali, 

and Kurbangaliev): leader of independent Bashkiria movement 
who has been living in Japan or Japanese-occupied territory 
since 1924 an 1 training underground workers for the Muslim 
areas of Soviet P.ussia. 


confidential 





CONFIDENTIAL 


- 82 - 

191# Rahim or Rahimov, Mullah, M#: succeeded Mullah M# Shamuni as 
head of the Far Eastern Turko-Tatars at a congress held in 
Mukden in August 1941# 


S p. c c^fif r ...S heikh Muhammad# See Hasukoff. 

192# Sadr-ud-Din, MuftisN Uzbek refugee from Tashkent who escaped 

-from Sxnrj.f-i t Russ ia to Iran and thence to Kabul in 1940; 

a key person in anti-Soviet espionage based in Iran and 
Afghanistan; has much influence with the Uzbeks and contacts 
through Soviet Muslim areas l has methods of communicating 
with these contacts# 

193# Saleiev, H# I#: A Russian Tatar in. Harbin and chairman of the 
Japanese-sponsored Turko-Tatar Administrative Council# 

194# Satybaldyev, Abdul Muttalib* with his organization, which 
cooperated with foreign powers in espionage, was exposed 
during the treason trials of Muslim clergy in Kokhand, 
October-November 1935# 

195# Semenov, Ataman or General: Siberian cossack whose separatist 

Siberian government around Chita, was sponsored by the Japanes 
in 1919 and who has since then been living in Manchuria, 
active in Anti-Soviet intrigue# 

, / 

Sham Gani, Imam, See Shanuni, Madiar Hazrot# 

196# Shamuni or Sharaunin, Madiar Hazret: also referred to as Imam 

Sham Gani; was leader of the Kobe Muslims and lie ad of the 
Turko-Tstar F a r Eastern Congrews before his death in Japan 
in 1940# 

197# Sharinov, Nabidjan: acted as courier between Abdul Muttalib 
Sttybaldyev and Abdul Haq; exposed at treas. n trials in 
Kokhand 1935 as agent of foreign powers, 

198# Solmaz, Mrs# Hatice: a Russian Tatar refugee in Kabul, servant 
and mistress of German engineer Malthcr, July 1941; actively 
anti-Soviet# 

Sultan Ali# See Galiev, Sultan# 

Sultangaliev* See Galiev, Sultan# 


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* 33 - 

199. Tadjimanov (in Japanese referred -to as Jemianofu): director 

of the Central Muslim league of U.S.S.R. Exposed as 
German-Japanese agent and executed in E r c.vna, Buria-Mongclia, 
April 1939. 

200. Tchckai, Mustafa: president of the Central Asia Islamic Nations 

Revolutionary League formed in 1921; since then active in the 
C-rey Wolf Society and anti-Soviet propaganda among the Muslims. 

Tchokaieff, M.A. See Tohokai, Mustafa. 

201. Thomas, Smile: Russian-born German in Dar-*ul-Fanun, Afghanistan, 

who receives a small allowance from Abdul tlnjid 

- % 

202. Ungern von Sternberg, Baront Japanese-sponsored leader of 

the Autonomous Mongol Empire to extend from Manchuria to the 
Caspian; captured and shot by the Soviet government in 1921. 

203. Usmanov, Mumin: public prosecutor in the Muslim treason trials 

held in Kokhand, Soviet Turkestan, October-November 1935. 

204. Vitkovski: an anti-Soviet Russian in Kabul, active in anti- 

Soviet propaganda; in Manhcuria around 1934. 

205. X, Mr.: son of Ibrahim who come to Japan after the Russo- 

Japanese War to be educated,at the expense of the Black Dragon 
Society and left following completion of education to ’’work 
for his cause.” 

206. Yanguraji: described by Sakuma as a Tatar in Tokyo and active 

supporter of the Tokyo mosque. 

C. Other Nationals: 

20Ti Abdul Kerin Khan: founded a general trading company called 

the Shirkat-k-Karimi in Kabul in 1935 and tried to negotiate 
for trade facilities with Japanese, companies. 

208. Abdul Karim, Prince: rumored to have been meant by the 

Japanese to head the autonomous Muslim state in Central Asia . 
in 1934; nephew of the last Sultan of Turkey. 

209. Abudur R r ,him Kan: General? reported anti-Soviet in 1935 and 

not averse to setting up an independent state of parts of 
Afghanistan and Soviet Russia; has large estates near Kushk. 


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- 84 - 

210# Ali Ahmai (al-Jarjawi)s editor of an Egyptian paper Al-Irshad; 
invited to Japan in 1906 and subsequently has written 
Japanese propaganda# 

211# Aman al-Husaini: Grand" I.Iufti of Jerusalem, with German, and 
Japanese connections. 

212# Amanullah: King of Afghanistan until 1928; since then exiled 
and living in Italy# 

213# Ata Muhammad Khan:' son of late Sardar Abdullah Khan and one 
of the Afghan officials who was secretly ordered to render- 
assistance to Enver Pasha when the latter tried to set up 
an independent Muslim state'in Central Asia in 1922; in Russia 
in 1929. 

214# Bac, Muhammad: charge d T affaires of the Turkish Embassy in 

Kabul, interested in Pan-Turanism and said to have used Muhamraa- 
Beg and his agents to collect materials on conditions in 
Russian Central Asia# 

215# Barakatullah, Muhammad: d# 1928; Indian Muslim who was active 
in the East Asia One-Culture Society, the Reawakening of 
A s ia Society, and the Black Dragon .Society; connections with 
Japan began in 1909; in Russia in 1920; returned to Japan 
but was deported on British insistence# 

216# Bose, Subhas Chandra: Indian nationalist flown to Japan from 

Berlin recently while Iyad Ishaqi returned from the Far East 
to Europe# 

217# Chang Te-ch’un: director of Islamic Cultural Institute, 
established by the Japanese in Dairen# 

218. Ciobon-oghlu: Turkish teacher in Manchuria who writes Muslim 
propaganda for the Japanese# 

219# Dariyus: chief of Teheran Radio Station; suspected of engaging 
in Japanese propaganda in 1942# 

220# Darugar: wealthy soap manufacturer in Iran; suspected of 
spreading Japanese propaganda# 


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- 85 - 


221* Enver Pasha: following expulsion from Turkey after the first 
World War proceeded via Moscow to Russian Central Asia 
where tried to set up an independent Pan-Turkic state; 
successful for a while but finally his followers were routed* 
many fled to Afghanistan and Sinkiong, and he himself was 
killed in a oorder skirmish with the lied Army in 1922* 

Arrests of his followers in Turkey•took place in 1928 and many 
more fled Turkey and Russia to Afghanistan in later years* 
These elements are idle backb • le of anti-Soviet intrigue in 
Afghanistan used by the Japa.ese and the Germans'for their 
own purposes* Most of Enver-Pashals adherents* like himself, 
will look for support to anyone likely to promise help to the 
setting up of an independent Pan-Turanic and Muslin state. 

This their connection with the Grey Wolf Society which has 
similar aims and their susceptibility to German and 
Japanese promises * 

222* Fadli, Ahman: associate of Barakatullah; once published 
Islemic fraternity in Tokyo; Egyptian* 

223* Fakhr ul-Islom; of Teheran wont to the Tokyo Religious Congress 
of 1906 as delegate from the R'ussian Caucasus*. 

224* Kaya, Kemal: a Turkish officer who fled Turkey to Manchuria and 
then became adviser to General Ma Chung-ying in Sinkiang in 
1931; suspected of being both a Japanese and/or Soviet spy* 

225* Muhammad Amiru ex-amir of Khotan; works for Hens Pilger and 
has probably also supplied information to the Japanese; in 
return for organization work in Tadjikistan, Sinkiang, and 
. Tibet is to be given enlarged territories and remade Amir* 

226, Pilger, Hans: German Minister in Kabul and active in anti-Soviet 
activities• 

227* Quaroni, Pietro; . Italian Minister in Kabul, actively cooperated 
, with the German and Japanese embassies until the fall of 
Italy; subsequently Bodoglio government’s Minister to Moscow. 

228. Tarzi, Habibullah Khan: b. 1397 in:Kabul* Afghan Minister in 

Japan since 1933* 

229. Tirazi, Sayyid Mubashir Khan: published articles on the Muslims 

in Japan in Kabul Review . 

230. Zedan, Badran: Egyptian teacher and journalist in Kabul who, 

supposedly, converted Muhammad Ahmad Yamama to Islam in 1935* 


CONFIDENTIAL 










CONFTIA UTIAL 


- 06 - 

APRENbI% III 

MUSLIMS IN THE USSR 

A* Location and Distribution# The Muslims in Russia occupy 
almost tfio -whole southern periphery of the country stretching from 
the Tatar settlements along the Trans-Siberian Railway + through 
Central Asia to the shores of the Caspian and the Black seas# 

Between the Volga and the ^rals they drive a wedge into Russian 
territory, practically separating European Russia from Siberia. 

Along the Trans-Siberian Railway, they reach Manchuria, Y/'ith the 
exception of Georgia -and Armenia on the Turkish border, -the entire 
southern frontier of Russia—touching Persia, Afghanistan, and 
Sink!ang—is Muslim. 

Economically the Muslim belt includes the wealthiest regions 
of the country. It is the source of Caucasian oil. Central Asiatic 
cotton and cattle, and of the mineral wealth of the lower Urals, at 
present the seat of important war industries and metallurgical plants. 

The predominantly Muslim Turkic peoples of Russia are numerically 
the most important single non-Russian group in the Soviet Union. Today 
there are over twenty million Muslims in the USSR* Eor over a 
generation they have formed about 12 percent of the total population 
of the county, (See table on the following page. 

B# Affinity to Neighboring Muslim States , In spite of a variety 
of tongues, 'the predominance of Turki dialects makes cultural inter¬ 
course between the tribes possible and establishes a tie with Turkey, 


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- 87 - 


Table 1. MUSLIM NATIONALITIES IN THE USSR ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 

17 JANUARY 1939* 


Nationality 


Number of 
persons with 
families* 


Percentage of 
total population 
of USSR 


Uzbeks 


4,884,021 

2.36 

Tatar 


4,300,336 

2,54 

Kazak 


3,098,764 

1.83 

Azerbaijan 


2,274,805 

1.34 

Tadjik 


1,228,964 

.72 

Kirgiz 


834,306 

.52 

Dagestan 


857,371 

.50 

Bashkir 


842,925 

.50 

Turkmen 


9 .811,769 

CO 

. 

Chechen 


407,690 

.24 

Karakalpak 


135,775 

.11 

Kabardin 


164,106 

.10 

Ingush 


92,074 

.05 

Adygei 


87,973 

.05 

Karachaev 


75,737 

.04 

Abhaz (mixed) 


58,969 

.03 

Kurda 


45,866 

.03 

Balkar 


42,666 

.03 

Iranian 


39,037 

.02 

Arab 

TOTAL 

21,793 

20,362,947 

.01 

12.00 


♦Sulkevioh, S# TERRITORIA I NASELENIE SSSR 1940. Abstracted from 
table on page 15. CONFIDENTIAL 









CONFIDENTIAL 


- 88 - 

The proximity of Persia and Afghanistan and the use of Iranian 

by such groups as the Tadjik and some Caucasus tribes further cement 

the traditional affinity to these two Muslim states 0 The predominantly 

Turk! population of Sinkiang has its counterpart on the other side of 

the border in the Soviet republics of Kazakstan and Kirgizistan* 

C* Muslim Sects* The majority-of the Russian Muslims are 

Sunnites, although Shiites are found in the Caucasus and in parts 

of Turkestan* Shamanism has survived- to some degree in Kazakstan 

and is practiced side by side with Islam* 

D. Absorption into the USSR* -lath the exception of the Tatars, 

the majority of these Muslim peoples-were conquered by tho Russians 

1 

as late as the nineteenth century* Tsarist attempts to hinder the 
spread of Islam and to make the Musl-dm tribes pay taxes to the 
Russian government led to an intense anti-Russian feeling strengthened 
by religious, cultural, and racial differences. Pan-Islranic cold 
Pan-Turkic ideas found a ready welcome, since they hold out hope of 
religious and political liberation from the Russians* 

Ijjpiediately after the Russian Revolution of 1917, nationalist 
republics claiming autonomous status wore set up for these Muslim 
areas* The first republican governments were headed by nationalist 
intellectuals, occasionally of moderate socialist sympathies* as 
the Bolshevik movement .'with its international orientation swept 
the country, it resulted here as elsewhere in a fratricidal war 


CONFIDENTIAL 






CONFIDENTIAL 


- 89 - 

between the leftists of an international bent on the one side 
and the nationalists and moderates on the other* Am on;- the latter 
were Muslim clergy and the wealthier classes, while the former 
’.vere represented by the city proletariat and returned soldiers. 

Here the civil strife went on long after the Civil bar subsided 
in other parts of Russia, Throughout the late twenties and early 
thirties border skirmishes still broke out, Tra.ins were attacked 
by bands of dissenters who usually escaoed across the border into 
Persia or Afghanistan only to emerge again, often supplied with foreign 
arms , 

The educational system of 1923 indicated the comparative degree 
of peace attained. Literacy came with communist propaganda and the 
Five-Year Plan. Y/ith the exception of religion, national cultures 
were encouraged. Schooling was in native dialects. Phonetic 
alphabets were invented where none had previously existed. Folk 
dancing, drama, and literature received national acclaim, and native 
troupes toured Russia at government expense* The most energetic and 
talented youths, provided they were of proletarian origin, wont to 
communist universities to study* The new republics began to develop 
a sense of their ovm importance as they sent delegates to the All-Union 
Congress and were acclaimed sister republics in the Soviet Union* 

E, Elements of Opposition . Opposition to the new order crane 
from the Muslim clergy* With the fall of Tsarism, they lost their 


CONFIDENTIAL 







CONFIDENTIAL 


- 90 - 


subsidies and their right t' teach the young# The forced collecti¬ 
vization program of the early thirties swelled the ranks of dissenters 
and brought a new flare-up of opposition# passive as well as active# 
Arrests end deportations of those not willing to cooperate left in 
their wake a bitterness not easily dissolved# V<hen 1938, the year 
of the big purge, came even some of the foremost officials of local 
communist parties in Muslim areas were found to have been in touch 
with the enemy abroad and to have surreptitiously supported sabotage 
of the collective farms# 

The outbreak of the wqr with Germany in 1941 found the Muslim 
borderlands strengthened by Soviet discipline# Industrialization 
was going full speed, and the population, willingly^or unwillingly, 
was being swppt into increased efforts toward defense and armament# 


CONFIDENTIAL 


























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